Введение
Римский архитектор и инженер
the Roman architect
Vitruvius (/v//ɪ/'/t//r//uː//v//i//ə//s/ viTROOveeəs, ; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi volume work titled De architectura. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture. It is not clear to what extent his contemporaries regarded his book as original or important. He states that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"), principles reflected in much Ancient Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Vitruvius' De architectura was well known and widely copied in the Middle Ages and survives in many dozens of manuscripts, though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though any original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Bramante, Michelangelo, Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects are known to have studied the work of Vitruvius, and consequently it has had a significant impact on the architecture of many European countries. Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a Lucius Vitruvius Cordo, and an inscription from Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and Mamurra (who was a military praefectus fabrum under Julius Caesar) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by De Architectura (which Vitruvius dedicated to Augustus), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra. Vitruvius was a military engineer (praefectus fabrum), or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in Pliny the Elder's table of contents for Naturalis Historia (Natural History), in the heading for mosaic techniques. Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st century work De aquaeductu. Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account Vitruvius served in the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the Roman Theatre at Heraclea. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he does not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul (including Aquitaine) and Pontus. To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by Flavius Vegetius Renatus in The Military Institutions of the Romans:
The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the [Prefect], had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself. At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to:
The siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at Avaricum in 52 BC. Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they [Gauls] themselves were unacquainted." The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC. The circumvallation and Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. The women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, and then starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers. The siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida. Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war, we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC (modern France), the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign. A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture, construction management, construction engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, materials engineering, mechanical engineering, military engineering and urban planning; architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture. In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the miasma theory – the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying:
Frontinus mentions Vitruvius in connection with the standard sizes of pipes: probably the role for which he was most widely respected in Roman times. He is often credited as father of architectural acoustics for describing the technique of echeas placement in theaters. The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a basilica completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of Fano. The Basilica di Fano (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman basilicae (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the basilica may be incorporated into the Romanesque Fano Cathedral. In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister Octavia Minor, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence. James Anderson's "The Constitutions of the Free Masons" (1734), reprinted by Benjamin Franklin, describes Vitruvius as "the Father of all true Architects to this Day."
Римский архитектор Витрувий (/v//ɪ/'/t//r//uː//v//i//ə//s/ viTROOveeəs, ; ок. 80–70 до н.э. – после 15 до н.э.) был римским архитектором и инженером в I веке до н.э., известным своим многотомным трудом «De architectura». Как единственный сохранившийся со времен античности трактат по архитектуре, он с эпохи Возрождения считается первой книгой по архитектурной теории и важнейшим источником по канону классической архитектуры. Неясно, насколько его современники считали его книгу оригинальной или значимой. Он утверждает, что все здания должны обладать тремя качествами: firmitas, utilitas и venustas («прочность», «функциональность» и «красота») – принципами, отраженными в большей части древнеримской архитектуры. Его рассуждения об идеальных пропорциях в архитектуре и человеческом теле привели к знаменитому рисунку Леонардо да Винчи «Витрувианский человек», созданному в эпоху Возрождения. О жизни Витрувия известно немного, но по его собственным словам он служил артиллеристом, третьим классом вооружения в римской военной иерархии. Вероятно, он был старшим офицером артиллерии, ответственным за doctores ballistarum (артиллерийских специалистов) и libratores, непосредственно управлявших машинами. Как военный инженер он специализировался на строительстве баллист и скорпионов – артиллерийских боевых машин для осад. Возможно, Витрувий служил под началом главного инженера Юлия Цезаря, Луция Корнелия Балба. Труд Витрувия «De architectura» был хорошо известен и широко копировался в Средние века и сохранился во множестве рукописей, хотя в 1414 году флорентийский гуманист Поджо Браччолини «заново открыл» его в библиотеке аббатства Санкт-Галла. Леон Баттиста Альберти опубликовал его в своем основополагающем трактате об архитектуре «De re aedificatoria» (ок. 1450 г.). Первое известное латинское печатное издание было выпущено Фра Джованни Сульпицием в Риме в 1486 году. За ним последовали переводы на итальянский, французский, английский, немецкий, испанский и другие языки. Хотя оригинальные иллюстрации не сохранились, первое иллюстрированное издание было опубликовано в Венеции в 1511 году Фра Джованни Джокондо с иллюстрациями из ксилографии, основанными на описаниях в тексте. Известно, что Браманте, Микеланджело, Палладио, Виньола и другие архитекторы изучали работы Витрувия, что оказало значительное влияние на архитектуру многих европейских стран. Марк Цетий Фавентин пишет о «Витрувии Полио aliique auctores», что можно понимать как «Витрувий Полио и другие», или, менее вероятно, как «Витрувий, Полио и другие». Надпись в Вероне, упоминающая Луция Витрувия Кордо, и надпись из Тибилиса в Северной Африке, упоминающая Марка Витрувия Мамурру, были предложены как доказательство того, что Витрувий и Мамурра (военный префект fabrum при Юлии Цезаре) происходили из одной семьи или даже были одним и тем же человеком. Однако ни одна из этих гипотез не подтверждается ни «De Architectura» (которую Витрувий посвятил Августу), ни немногочисленными сведениями о Мамурре. Витрувий был военным инженером (praefectus fabrum) или praefect architectus armamentarius группы статуса аппиторов (отрасль римской государственной службы). Он упоминается в оглавлении «Naturalis Historia» (Естественная история) Плиния Старшего в разделе, посвященном мозаичным техникам. Фронтин упоминает «Витрувия архитектора» в своей работе конца I века «De aquaeductu». Вероятно, родившийся свободным римским гражданином, Витрувий, по его собственным словам, служил в римской армии под командованием Цезаря вместе с Марком Аврелием, Публием Минидием и Гнеем Корнелием. Эти имена варьируются в зависимости от издания «De architectura». Публий Минидий также упоминается как Публий Нумидик и Публий Нумидий, предположительно, тот же Публий Нумизий, чье имя выгравировано на римском театре в Гераклее. Как военный инженер он специализировался на строительстве баллист и скорпионов – артиллерийских боевых машин для осад. Предполагается, что Витрувий служил под началом главного инженера Цезаря, Луция Корнелия Балба. Места его службы можно реконструировать, например, по описаниям строительных методов различных «иностранных племен». Хотя он описывает различные места в «De Architectura», он не указывает, что лично там присутствовал. Его служба, вероятно, включала Северную Африку, Испанию, Галлию (включая Аквитанию) и Понт. Чтобы понять роль Витрувия как военного инженера, приведем описание «префекта лагеря» или армейного инженера, данное Флавием Вегецием Ренатом в «Военном искусстве»:
the Roman architect
Vitruvius (/v//ɪ/'/t//r//uː//v//i//ə//s/ viTROOveeəs, ; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi volume work titled De architectura. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture. It is not clear to what extent his contemporaries regarded his book as original or important. He states that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"), principles reflected in much Ancient Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Vitruvius' De architectura was well known and widely copied in the Middle Ages and survives in many dozens of manuscripts, though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though any original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Bramante, Michelangelo, Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects are known to have studied the work of Vitruvius, and consequently it has had a significant impact on the architecture of many European countries. Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a Lucius Vitruvius Cordo, and an inscription from Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and Mamurra (who was a military praefectus fabrum under Julius Caesar) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by De Architectura (which Vitruvius dedicated to Augustus), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra. Vitruvius was a military engineer (praefectus fabrum), or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in Pliny the Elder's table of contents for Naturalis Historia (Natural History), in the heading for mosaic techniques. Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st century work De aquaeductu. Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account Vitruvius served in the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the Roman Theatre at Heraclea. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he does not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul (including Aquitaine) and Pontus. To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by Flavius Vegetius Renatus in The Military Institutions of the Romans:
The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the [Prefect], had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself. At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to:
The siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at Avaricum in 52 BC. Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they [Gauls] themselves were unacquainted." The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC. The circumvallation and Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. The women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, and then starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers. The siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida. Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war, we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC (modern France), the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign. A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture, construction management, construction engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, materials engineering, mechanical engineering, military engineering and urban planning; architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture. In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the miasma theory – the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying:
Frontinus mentions Vitruvius in connection with the standard sizes of pipes: probably the role for which he was most widely respected in Roman times. He is often credited as father of architectural acoustics for describing the technique of echeas placement in theaters. The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a basilica completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of Fano. The Basilica di Fano (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman basilicae (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the basilica may be incorporated into the Romanesque Fano Cathedral. In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister Octavia Minor, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence. James Anderson's "The Constitutions of the Free Masons" (1734), reprinted by Benjamin Franklin, describes Vitruvius as "the Father of all true Architects to this Day."
Префект лагеря, хотя и уступал по рангу [префекту], занимал немаловажный пост. В его ведении находилось расположение лагеря, направление укреплений, осмотр палаток или хижин солдат и багажа. Его власть распространялась на больных и врачей, заботящихся о них, и он регулировал связанные с этим расходы. Он отвечал за обеспечение экипажей, бань и необходимых инструментов для пиления и рубки дерева, рытья траншей, возведения парапетов, копания колодцев и подвода воды в лагерь. Он также отвечал за обеспечение войск древесиной и соломой, а также таранами, онаграми, баллистами и всеми другими военными машинами, находящимися под его руководством. Этот пост всегда поручался офицеру с большим опытом, знаниями и стажем службы, способному обучать других в тех областях профессии, в которых он преуспел. В различных местах, описанных Витрувием, происходили сражения и осады. Он является единственным источником информации об осаде Ларигнума в 56 г. до н.э. О местах сражений Галльской войны имеются ссылки на: осаду и резню 40 000 жителей в Аварикуме в 52 г. до н.э. Верцингеторикс заметил, что «римляне не побеждали благодаря храбрости или в поле боя, а благодаря своего рода искусству и мастерству при штурме, с которым [галлы] сами не были знакомы». Неудачная осада Герговии в 52 г. до н.э. Окружение и битва при Алезии в 52 г. до н.э. Женщины и дети осажденного города были изгнаны, чтобы сохранить запасы продовольствия, а затем умерли от голода между противостоящими стенами защитников и осаждающих. Осада Укселлодума в 51 г. до н.э. Это все осады крупных галльских oppida. О местах, задействованных в гражданской войне Цезаря, мы находим осаду Массилии в 49 г. до н.э. (современная Франция), битву при Диррахии в 48 г. до н.э. (современная Албания), битву при Фарсале в 48 г. до н.э. (Эллада – Греция), битву при Зеле в 47 г. до н.э. (современная Турция) и битву при Тапсе в 46 г. до н.э. в африканской кампании Цезаря. Легион, соответствующий этой последовательности мест, – Legio VI Ferrata, вспомогательным подразделением которой была баллиста. В основном известный своими трудами, Витрувий был архитектором. В римское время архитектура была более широкой областью, чем в настоящее время, включая современные области архитектуры, управления строительством, строительной инженерии, химической инженерии, гражданской инженерии, материаловедения, машиностроения, военного строительства и городского планирования; архитектурные инженеры считают его первым представителем своей дисциплины, специализации, ранее известной как техническая архитектура. В своей работе, описывающей строительство военных сооружений, он также комментировал теорию миазмов – идею о том, что нездоровый воздух из болот является причиной болезней, говоря:
the Roman architect
Vitruvius (/v//ɪ/'/t//r//uː//v//i//ə//s/ viTROOveeəs, ; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi volume work titled De architectura. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture. It is not clear to what extent his contemporaries regarded his book as original or important. He states that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"), principles reflected in much Ancient Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Vitruvius' De architectura was well known and widely copied in the Middle Ages and survives in many dozens of manuscripts, though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though any original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Bramante, Michelangelo, Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects are known to have studied the work of Vitruvius, and consequently it has had a significant impact on the architecture of many European countries. Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a Lucius Vitruvius Cordo, and an inscription from Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and Mamurra (who was a military praefectus fabrum under Julius Caesar) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by De Architectura (which Vitruvius dedicated to Augustus), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra. Vitruvius was a military engineer (praefectus fabrum), or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in Pliny the Elder's table of contents for Naturalis Historia (Natural History), in the heading for mosaic techniques. Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st century work De aquaeductu. Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account Vitruvius served in the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the Roman Theatre at Heraclea. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he does not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul (including Aquitaine) and Pontus. To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by Flavius Vegetius Renatus in The Military Institutions of the Romans:
The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the [Prefect], had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself. At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to:
The siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at Avaricum in 52 BC. Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they [Gauls] themselves were unacquainted." The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC. The circumvallation and Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. The women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, and then starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers. The siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida. Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war, we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC (modern France), the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign. A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture, construction management, construction engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, materials engineering, mechanical engineering, military engineering and urban planning; architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture. In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the miasma theory – the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying:
Frontinus mentions Vitruvius in connection with the standard sizes of pipes: probably the role for which he was most widely respected in Roman times. He is often credited as father of architectural acoustics for describing the technique of echeas placement in theaters. The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a basilica completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of Fano. The Basilica di Fano (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman basilicae (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the basilica may be incorporated into the Romanesque Fano Cathedral. In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister Octavia Minor, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence. James Anderson's "The Constitutions of the Free Masons" (1734), reprinted by Benjamin Franklin, describes Vitruvius as "the Father of all true Architects to this Day."
Фронтин упоминает Витрувия в связи со стандартными размерами труб: вероятно, именно за это он был наиболее уважаем в римское время. Ему часто приписывают отцовство архитектурной акустики за описание техники размещения эхеев в театрах. Однако единственное здание, над которым, как нам известно, работал Витрувий, – это базилика, строительство которой было завершено в 19 г. до н.э. Она была построена в Фануме Фортуне, ныне современный город Фано. Базилика ди Фано (названная в честь итальянского названия здания) исчезла настолько полностью, что…
the Roman architect
Vitruvius (/v//ɪ/'/t//r//uː//v//i//ə//s/ viTROOveeəs, ; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi volume work titled De architectura. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture. It is not clear to what extent his contemporaries regarded his book as original or important. He states that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"), principles reflected in much Ancient Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Vitruvius' De architectura was well known and widely copied in the Middle Ages and survives in many dozens of manuscripts, though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though any original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Bramante, Michelangelo, Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects are known to have studied the work of Vitruvius, and consequently it has had a significant impact on the architecture of many European countries. Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a Lucius Vitruvius Cordo, and an inscription from Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and Mamurra (who was a military praefectus fabrum under Julius Caesar) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by De Architectura (which Vitruvius dedicated to Augustus), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra. Vitruvius was a military engineer (praefectus fabrum), or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in Pliny the Elder's table of contents for Naturalis Historia (Natural History), in the heading for mosaic techniques. Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st century work De aquaeductu. Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account Vitruvius served in the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the Roman Theatre at Heraclea. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he does not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul (including Aquitaine) and Pontus. To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by Flavius Vegetius Renatus in The Military Institutions of the Romans:
The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the [Prefect], had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself. At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to:
The siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at Avaricum in 52 BC. Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they [Gauls] themselves were unacquainted." The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC. The circumvallation and Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. The women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, and then starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers. The siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida. Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war, we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC (modern France), the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign. A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture, construction management, construction engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, materials engineering, mechanical engineering, military engineering and urban planning; architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture. In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the miasma theory – the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying:
Frontinus mentions Vitruvius in connection with the standard sizes of pipes: probably the role for which he was most widely respected in Roman times. He is often credited as father of architectural acoustics for describing the technique of echeas placement in theaters. The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a basilica completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of Fano. The Basilica di Fano (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman basilicae (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the basilica may be incorporated into the Romanesque Fano Cathedral. In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister Octavia Minor, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence. James Anderson's "The Constitutions of the Free Masons" (1734), reprinted by Benjamin Franklin, describes Vitruvius as "the Father of all true Architects to this Day."
Де архитектура
Витрувий является автором De architectura, libri decem, известного сегодня как «Десять книг об архитектуре» – трактата, написанного на латыни и посвященного императору Августу. В предисловии к первой книге Витрувий посвящает свои труды передаче императору личных знаний о качестве зданий. Вероятно, Витрувий ссылается на кампанию Марка Агриппы по общественным ремонтам и улучшениям. Эта работа – единственная сохранившаяся крупная книга об архитектуре, дошедшая до нас из классической античности. По словам Петри Люкконена, этот текст «глубоко повлиял на художников, мыслителей и архитекторов, начиная с раннего Возрождения, среди которых Леона Баттиста Альберти (1404–1472), Леонардо да Винчи (1452–1519) и Микеланджело (1475–1564)». Витрувий известен тем, что в своей книге De architectura утверждал, что сооружение должно обладать тремя качествами: firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis – то есть прочностью, функциональностью и красотой. Эти качества иногда называют витрувианскими добродетелями или витрувианской триадой. По мнению Витрувия, архитектура – это подражание природе. Подобно тому, как птицы и пчелы строят свои гнезда, люди возводили жилища из природных материалов, чтобы защититься от непогоды. Совершенствуя это искусство строительства, греки изобрели архитектурные ордера: дорический, ионический и коринфский. Это дало им ощущение пропорциональности, кульминацией которого стало постижение пропорций величайшего произведения искусства – человеческого тела. Это привело Витрувия к определению его «Витрувианского человека», впоследствии изображенного Леонардо да Винчи: человеческое тело, вписанное в круг и квадрат (фундаментальные геометрические формы космического порядка). В этой серии книг Витрувий также рассуждал о влиянии климата на архитектуру жилых зданий и о том, как выбирать местоположение для городов.
Область применения
Витрувий – первый римский архитектор, оставивший дошедшие до нас записи о своей области. Он сам ссылается на более ранние, но менее полные работы. Витрувий был скорее кодификатором существующей архитектурной практики, чем оригинальным мыслителем или творческим интеллектом. Римские архитекторы занимались широким спектром дисциплин; в современных терминах их можно было бы описать как ландшафтных архитекторов, инженеров-строителей, военных инженеров, конструкторов, геодезистов, художников и ремесленников в одном лице. Этимологически слово «архитектор» происходит от греческих слов, означающих «мастер» и «строитель». Первая из Десяти книг посвящена многим темам, которые сегодня относятся к сфере ландшафтной архитектуры. В книге I, глава 1, под названием «Образование архитектора», Витрувий наставляет,
что архитектор должен владеть рисованием, геометрией, оптикой (освещением), историей, философией, музыкой, театром, медициной и правом. В книге I, глава 3 («Отрасли архитектуры»), Витрувий разделяет архитектуру на три ветви, а именно: строительство; создание солнечных и водяных часов; и проектирование и применение машин в строительстве и военном деле. Он далее разделяет строительство на общественное и частное. Общественное строительство включает в себя градостроительство, сооружения для общественной безопасности, такие как стены, ворота и башни; удобное размещение общественных зданий, таких как театры, форумы и рынки, бани, дороги и мостовые; а также строительство и расположение святилищ и храмов для религиозных целей. Именно на этих трудах базировались инженеры, архитекторы и художники эпохи Возрождения, такие как Мариано ди Якопо Таккола, Пеллегрино Присциани и Франческо ди Джорджио Мартини, и, наконец, Леонардо да Винчи, при создании иллюстрации «Витрувианского человека». Витрувий считал человеческую фигуру главным источником пропорций. Сам рисунок часто используется как подразумеваемый символ существенной симметрии человеческого тела и, как следствие, вселенной в целом.
Восстановление
"De architectura" Витрувия был "заново открыт" в 1414 году флорентийским гуманистом Поджио Браччолини в библиотеке аббатства Санкт-Галлен. Леон Баттиста Альберти (1404–1472) популяризировал его в своем основополагающем трактате об архитектуре "De re aedificatoria" (ок. 1450). Первое известное латинское печатное издание было выпущено Фра Джованни Сулпициусом в Риме в 1486 году. За ним последовали переводы на итальянский (Чезаре Чезариано, 1521), французский (Жан Мартин, 1547), английский, немецкий (Вальтер Х. Рифф, 1543) и испанский, а также на несколько других языков. Оригинальные иллюстрации были утеряны, и первое иллюстрированное издание было опубликовано в Венеции в 1511 году Фра Джованни Джокондо с иллюстрациями, выполненными в технике ксилографии на основе описаний в тексте. Позднее, в XVI веке, Андреа Палладио создал иллюстрации для комментария Даниэле Барбаро к труду Витрувия, опубликованного в итальянской и латинской версиях. Самой известной иллюстрацией, вероятно, является "Витрувианский человек" Леонардо да Винчи. Сохранившиеся руины римской античности – Римский форум, храмы, театры, триумфальные арки, а также их рельефы и статуи – служили наглядными примерами описаний в тексте Витрувия. Печатные и иллюстрированные издания "De Architectura" вдохновляли архитектуру эпохи Возрождения, барокко и неоклассицизма. Филиппо Брунеллески, например, изобрел новый тип лебедки для подъема больших каменных блоков при строительстве купола Флорентийского собора и был вдохновлен как "De Architectura", так и сохранившимися римскими памятниками, такими как Пантеон и термы Диоклетиана.
Римская технология
Книги VIII, IX и X являются основой большинства наших знаний о римских технологиях, которые теперь дополняются археологическими исследованиями сохранившихся памятников, таких как водяные мельницы в Барбегале во Франции. Другим важным источником информации является «Естественная история», составленная Плинием Старшим значительно позже, примерно в 75 году н.э.
Машины
Работа важна благодаря описаниям множества различных машин, используемых в строительстве инженерных сооружений, таких как лебедки, краны и блоки, а также военных машин, таких как катапульты, баллисты и осадные машины. Будучи практикующим инженером, Витрувий, вероятно, опирался на личный опыт, а не просто на описания чужих работ. Он также описывает устройство солнечных и водяных часов, а также использование эолипиля (первого парового двигателя) в качестве эксперимента, демонстрирующего природу движений атмосферного воздуха (ветра).
Аквадукты
Его описание строительства акведуков включает в себя методы их обследования и тщательный выбор необходимых материалов, однако Фронтин (генерал, назначенный в конце I века н.э. для управления многочисленными акведуками Рима), писавший столетие спустя, приводит гораздо более подробную информацию о практических проблемах, связанных со строительством и обслуживанием акведуков. Безусловно, книга Витрувия могла бы оказать значительную помощь в этом вопросе. Витрувий писал в I веке до н.э., когда были построены многие из лучших римских акведуков, сохранившиеся до наших дней, такие как акведуки в Сеговии и Пон-дю-Гар. Подробно описано использование перевернутого сифона, а также проблемы, связанные с высоким давлением, возникающим в трубе в нижней точке сифона – практическая проблема, с которой он, по-видимому, был знаком.
Материалы
Он описывает множество различных строительных материалов, используемых для широкого спектра различных сооружений, а также такие детали, как штукатурная живопись. Бетону и извести даны подробные описания. Витрувий упоминается как один из первых источников, связывающих добычу и производство свинца, его применение в трубах для питьевой воды и его негативное влияние на здоровье. По этой причине он рекомендовал использовать глиняные трубы и каменную кладку для обеспечения подачи питьевой воды по трубам. Витрувий является источником анекдота, согласно которому Архимеду приписывают открытие соотношения массы к объему, когда он отдыхал в бане. Архимеда попросили расследовать подозрение в подделке золота, использованного для изготовления короны, и он понял, что объем короны можно точно измерить по вытесненному ею объему воды, после чего выбежал на улицу с криком: «Эврика!»
Машины для обезвоживания
Он описывает конструкцию винта Архимеда в главе X (не упоминая Архимеда по имени). Это было устройство, широко использовавшееся для подъема воды для орошения полей и откачки воды из шахт. Среди других подъемных машин, которые он упоминает, – бесконечная цепь с ковшами и водяное колесо с верхним боем, работающее в обратном направлении. Остатки водяных колес, использовавшихся для подъема воды, были обнаружены при повторном открытии старых рудников в Рио-Тинто (Испания), Росия-Монтане (Румыния) и Долаукоти (западный Уэльс). Колесо из Рио-Тинто сейчас экспонируется в Британском музее, а образец из Долаукоти – в Национальном музее Уэльса.
Стрелки для геодезии
О том, что он, должно быть, был хорошо знаком с практикой нивелирования, свидетельствуют его описания геодезических инструментов, особенно уровня воды, или хорбата, который он выгодно сравнивает с громой – прибора, использующего отвесы. Они были необходимы при всех строительных работах, но особенно при строительстве акведуков, где равномерный уклон был важен для обеспечения постоянной подачи воды без повреждения стенок канала. Он также разработал один из первых одометров, состоящий из колеса известной окружности, которое с каждым оборотом роняло камешек в контейнер.
Центральное отопление
Он описывает многочисленные нововведения в архитектуре, призванные улучшить условия жизни обитателей. Первым среди них является разработка гипокауста – системы центрального отопления, в которой горячий воздух от огня направлялся под полы и внутрь стен общественных бань и вилл. Он дает подробные инструкции по проектированию таких зданий для максимальной экономии топлива, например, располагая кальдарий рядом с тепидарием, а затем – с фригидарием. Он также рекомендует использовать регулятор для контроля температуры в горячих помещениях: бронзовый диск, вмонтированный в крышу над круглым отверстием, который можно было поднимать или опускать с помощью шкива для регулировки вентиляции. Хотя он сам об этом не упоминает, вероятно, его водоотводные устройства, такие как водяное колесо с верхним приводом, использовались в крупных банях для подъема воды в накопительные резервуары в верхней части больших терм, например, в банях Диоклетиана. А также то, которое применялось в банях Каракаллы для помола муки.