Происхождение и влияние языков на английский язык

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The English language descends from Old English, the West Germanic language of the Anglo Saxons. Most of its grammar, its core vocabulary and the most common words are Germanic. Around 70 percent of words in any text derive from Old English, even if the words have a greater Romance influence. The influence of other languages on English is mostly through loanwords. English borrowed many words from Old Norse, the North Germanic language of the Vikings, and later from Norman French, the Romance language of the Normans, which descends from Latin. Estimates of native words derived from Old English range up to 33%,
French: 28.30%;
Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%;
Germanic languages, as inherited from Old English, from Proto Germanic, or a more recent borrowing from a Germanic language such as Old Norse, excluding Germanic words borrowed from a Romance language: 25%;
Greek: 5.32%;
no etymology given: 4.04%;
derived from proper names: 3.28%; and
all other languages: less than 1%. A 1975 survey of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters by Joseph M. Williams suggested this set of statistics:
French (langue d'oïl): 41%;
"Native" English (derived from Old English): 33%;
Latin: 15%;
Old Norse: 5%;
Dutch: 1%; and
Other: 5%. Nearly 30 percent of English words (in an 80,000 word dictionary) are of French origin.

Most words in English that are derived from Latin are scientific and technical words, medical terminology, academic terminology, and legal terminology.

English words derived from Greek include scientific and medical terminology (for instance phobias and ologies), Christian theological terminology.

Castle, cauldron, kennel, catch, cater are among Norman words introduced into English. The Norman language also introduced (or reinforced) words of Norse origin such as mug.

There are many ways through which Dutch words have entered the English language: via trade and navigation, such as skipper (from schipper), freebooter (from vrijbuiter), keelhauling (from kielhalen); via painting, such as landscape (from landschap), easel (from ezel), still life (from stilleven); warfare, such as forlorn hope (from verloren hoop), beleaguer (from beleger), to bicker (from bicken); via civil engineering, such as dam, polder, dune (from duin); via the New Netherland settlements in North America, such as cookie (from koekie), boss from baas, Santa Claus (from Sinterklaas); via Dutch/Afrikaans speakers with English speakers in South Africa, such as wildebeest, apartheid, boer; via French words of Dutch/Flemish origin that have subsequently been adopted into English, such as boulevard (from bolwerk), mannequin (from manneken), buoy (from boei).

Words from Iberian Romance languages (aficionado, albino, alligator, cargo, cigar, embargo, guitar, jade, mesa, paella, platinum, plaza, renegade, rodeo, salsa, savvy, sierra, siesta, tilde, tornado, vanilla etc.). Words relating to warfare and tactics, for instance flotilla, and guerrilla; or related to science and culture.

Words relating to some music, piano, fortissimo. Or Italian culture, such as piazza, pizza, gondola, balcony, fascism. The English word umbrella comes from Italian ombrello.

Words relating to culture, originating from the colonial era. e. g., atoll, avatar, bandana, bangles, buddy, bungalow, calico, candy, cashmere, chit, cot, curry, cushy, dinghy, guru, juggernaut, jungle, karma, khaki, lacquer, lilac, loot, mandarin, mantra, polo, pyjamas, shampoo, thug, tiffin, verandah.

English is a Germanic language. As a result, many words are distantly related to German. Most German words relating to World War I and World War II found their way into the English language, words such as Blitzkrieg, Anschluss, Führer, and Lebensraum; food terms, such as bratwurst, hamburger and frankfurter; words related to psychology and philosophy, such as gestalt, Übermensch, zeitgeist, and realpolitik. From German origin are also: wanderlust, schadenfreude, kaputt, kindergarten, autobahn, rucksack.

Words of Old Norse origin have entered English primarily from the contact between Old Norse and Old English during colonisation of eastern and northern England between the mid 9th to the 11th centuries (see also Danelaw). Many of these words are part of English core vocabulary, such as they, egg, sky or knife.

Words used in religious contexts, like Sabbath, kosher, hallelujah, amen, and jubilee or words that have become slang like schmuck, shmooze, nosh, oy vey, and schmutz.

Trade items such as borax, coffee, cotton, hashish, henna, mohair, muslin, saffron; Islamic religious terms such as jihad, Assassin, hadith, and sharia; scientific vocabulary borrowed into Latin in the 12th and 13th centuries (alcohol, alkali, algebra, azimuth, zenith, cipher, nadir); plants or plant products originating in tropical Asia and introduced to medieval Europe through Arabic intermediation (camphor, jasmine, lacquer, lemon, orange, sugar); Middle Eastern and Maghrebi cuisine words (couscous, falafel, hummus, kebab, tahini).

Cardinal numbering in English follows two models, Germanic and Italic. The basic numbers are zero through ten. The numbers eleven through nineteen follow native Germanic style, as do twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, and ninety. Standard English, especially in very conservative formal contexts, continued to use native Germanic style as late as World War I for intermediate numbers greater than 20, viz., "one and twenty," "five and thirty," "seven and ninety," and so on. But with the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the Latin tradition of counting as "twenty one," "thirty five," "ninety seven," etc., which is easier to say and was already common in non standard regional dialects, gradually replaced the traditional Germanic style to become the dominant style by the end of nineteenth century.

Linguistic purism in the English language is the belief that words of native origin should be used instead of foreign derived ones (which are mainly Romance, Latin and Greek). "Native" can mean "Anglo Saxon" or it can be widened to include all Germanic words. In its mild form, it merely means using existing native words instead of foreign derived ones (such as using "begin" instead of "commence"). In its more extreme form, it involves reviving native words that are no longer widely used (such as "ettle" for "intend") and/or coining new words from Germanic roots (such as word stock for vocabulary). This dates at least to the inkhorn term debate of the 16th and 17th century, where some authors rejected the foreign influence, and has continued to this day, being most prominent in Plain English advocacy to avoid Latinate terms if a simple native alternative exists.