Терісіз ашытылған шарап және қытай спирттік сусыны

Wine fermented without skin contact
the Chinese liquor

White wine is a wine that is fermented without skin contact. The colour can be straw yellow, yellow green, or yellow gold. It is produced by the alcoholic fermentation of the non coloured pulp of grapes, which may have a skin of any colour. White wine has existed for at least 4,000 years. The wide variety of white wines comes from the large number of varieties, methods of winemaking, and ratios of residual sugar. White wine is mainly from "white" grapes, which are green or yellow in colour, such as the Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc and Riesling. Some white wine is also made from grapes with coloured skin, provided that the obtained wort is not stained. Pinot noir, for example, is commonly used to produce champagne. Among the many types of white wine, dry white wine is the most common. More or less aromatic and tangy, it is derived from the complete fermentation of the wort. Sweet wines, on the other hand, are produced by interrupting the fermentation before all the grape sugars are converted into alcohol; this is called Mutage or fortification. The methods of enriching wort with sugar are multiple: on ripening on the vine, passerillage (straining), or the use of noble rot. Sparkling wines, which are mostly white, are wines where the carbon dioxide from the fermentation is kept dissolved in the wine and becomes gas when the bottle is opened. White wines are often used as an apéritif before a meal, with dessert, or as a refreshing drink between meals. White wines are often considered more refreshing and lighter in both style and taste than the majority of their red wine counterparts. Due to their acidity, aroma and ability to soften meat and deglaze cooking juices, white wines are often used in cooking.

The first trace of wine that has been found dates to 7500 years ago, in present day Iran but the results of archaeological excavations have not been able to determine from which time wine began to be produced. Epigraphy tells us about the presence of wine in the Middle East: it was produced in the "High Country" (the mountain borders between Anatolia and Armenia) and then imported into Mesopotamia especially from the 3rd millennium BC. The tablets of Hattusa describes wine with the term wiyana in the Hittite language, GEŠTIN in Sumerian, and karânu in Akkadian. It could be red (SA5 GEŠTIN), light (or maybe white: KÙ. BABBAR GEŠTIN), good wine (DUG. GA GEŠTIN), honeyed (LÀL GEŠTIN) new (GIBIL), or sour (GEŠTIN EMSA). In Ancient Greece wine had already been developed and used since Hippocrates, a physician born around 460 BC who commonly prescribed it to patients. "Vinous white wine" and "bitter white wine" were used among his remedies – a sign of diversity in production at that time. In Roman times the type of viticulture practiced by the Greeks was their model; production included white wine. Rich Roman patricians organized banquets where the cost of the food was a sign of prestige. In the range of expensive products wine played a predominant role. The richest citizens built sumptuous villas in the Bay of Naples where the vine had been cultivated since its introduction by the Greeks. The aminum or ancient grape produced a sweet white wine produced as mulled wine resembling modern day Madeira. The conquering of regions more and more to the north encouraged the Romans to cultivate the vine and to produce lighter and less sweet wines. It also encouraged them to seek new wild varieties adaptable to these distant areas where the Mediterranean varieties showed their limits. For example, vines were planted on the banks of the Rhine to provide the Legions with a healthy drink, as opposed to water which was rarely drinkable. The wine was drunk cool in summer and warm in winter, a practice which still continues in the 21st century.

Wine merchants failed to survive the fall of the Western Roman Empire and viticulture declined dramatically. The Germanic tribes preferred to drink beer and did not see the value of the wine trade. The decline of viticulture was intensified when Vikings cut the sea lanes in the Atlantic. In the south the Saracens were making Ghazw or raids. These campaigns in southern Europe caused Languedoc, Provence, Southern Italy, and the Douro Valley to become depopulated – the people being taken into slavery or fleeing the threat. Knowledge about the culture of grapevines was conserved by the Catholic Church: Wine was necessary for the celebration of Mass, and the monks planted vines at high latitudes and increased the monastic acreages. Difficult to transport and store, wine long remained a product for local consumption. The trade was re established initially after the enrichment of the nobles and prelates because, as with the Romans, the art of the table reflected the reputation of the host. River trade was of great importance in the development of vineyards. The Germanic countries benefited from the navigability of the Rhine and the Danube so they could export their production. Charlemagne contributed to this growth by enacting his Capitulare de villis which included a set of rules on the cultivation of the vine in all areas. It was an era of great development of the culture of white wine in Germany and Austria. The Central European vineyards reached 100,000 hectares, which was three and a half times the area in the 1990s. From the 13th century traders distinguished vinum hunicum (wine of the Huns), which was drunk by the people, from vinum francium (Wine of the Franks) which was the wine for the wealthy aristocracy. There was recognition of varieties of Riesling and Sylvaner from the late Middle Ages. Part of European trade was by sea along the Atlantic coast. The English, then the Dutch and Scandinavians from their demand for wine, created a craze for planting between Bordeaux and La Rochelle. Little dry white wine was produced for export from La Rochelle while Bordeaux exported mainly wines from the hinterland received via the Garonne. When wine production was introduced on the banks of the Charente in the 17th century, Charente white wines were introduced as cognac. The Crusaders also discovered Muscat wine. Once back home, the rulers and wealthy aristocrats looked to buy the sweet wines they enjoyed in the East. They came from grapes that dominated the vineyards of Languedoc Roussillon and Spain. Trade in these wines was facilitated by their high alcohol content which ensured preservation during the long journey to Northern Europe.

In 1453 the Ottoman Empire took Constantinople and the situation of the Venetians and Genovese deteriorated. The wine trade between the eastern Mediterranean and northern Europe fell sharply. At the same time, the Spanish had just completed their Reconquista and replaced the Mediterranean wine with its own, especially for English and Dutch consumers. The port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda began to export large quantities of white wine which was the ancestor of today's sherry. This wine was called sack and caused a sensation in England. Even at the height of animosity between the two countries (as in the episode of the Spanish Armada in 1588) the trade continued – sometimes provided by pirates who stole what they could not buy. Between 40 and 60 thousand barrels each of 500 litres left the Spanish coast annually for England and the Netherlands (this volume of some 300,000 hectolitres represented two thirds of today's production). From the 16th century the first European vines were planted in America: in Mexico, then Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. These were in addition to the native vines that grew in Mexico, but this pre Columbian production was not for the production of wine since the grapes were too acidic. It was used to produce acachul a drink sweetened with fruit and honey. The Little Ice Age spelt the death knell of northern viticulture. The vine disappeared from northern Germany and Baden, and the maximum altitude for viticulture descended to 220 metres. Hans Jürgen Otto noted that: "all the vineyards suffered and decreased in area". In England the vine also disappeared. The less early vineyards preferred to select white varieties of grapes because, even if unripe, white grapes allowed wine that was a little sour to still be consumable, while red grapes do not give enough colour, and green tannins make the wine bitter. The interruption of the fermentation by a cold winter led to the discovery of the process of secondary fermentation of champagne. The enrichment of some of the population created a craze for rare wines. This phenomenon, which was already responsible for the development of sherry in England, was reproduced in Central Europe. The discovery of the benefits of the noble rot on white grapes took place around 1650 in Hungary for the development of Tokaji wine. Hugh Johnson declared that: "the Tokay of three centuries ago was the best sweet wine in the world, it was inherited from a long standing winemaking tradition". Developed with a grape whose exceptional maturity is due to a trade secret, this wine also developed its qualities through a process that long remained a secret in underground cellars of the winery. Prized by the House of Habsburg, Tokay experienced profitable trading. Attempted imitation came to nought and the use of noble rot remained a secret. It was not until 120 years later that a method of very late harvest was experimented with on the steep banks of the Rhine. Its use in Sauternes was attested in 1836 in the Château La Tour Blanche but at that time very late harvest gave a very rich wine that required several years to age in barrels. Other regions were discovering secrets which would make them rich. So it was that Dom Perignon was the legendary creator of champagne. In a northern vineyard he developed a special wine that would give rise to an exceptional passion for wine produced in a climate where it could not be expected for wine to reach maturity nor sufficient colour. The fashion of drinking cheap dry white wine started in Paris in the 18th century. To evade the excise duty, Parisians took the habit of going to drink their wine at the producers premises outside the walls of the city. Cabarets opened their doors by the river, becoming Guinguettes (similar to taverns): so the wine that was drunk there was also called "guinguet". This is a wine from the hills of the Seine or the Marne, sour, but the conditions of transport of the time did not allow it to be used prematurely.

Champagne was created in the 18th century but it was in the next century that its global expansion would occur. The crowned heads of Europe quickly made the wine stylish in their courts although its production, necessarily in bottles, made for a very expensive product. Historian Hugh Johnson assigns an important diplomatic role to champagne: Talleyrand would have offered this wine at the negotiating table of the Congress of Vienna, using it to relax his partners in the discussions. The occupation of Champagne by Russian troops in 1815 publicized the sparkling wine to the Russian aristocracy. The Veuve Clicquot (Widow Clicquot) booked her wine to her occupants saying "they drink today, tomorrow they will pay "

The progress of the glass industry (especially from the use of coal) helped to democratize the use of the glass bottle. The production of sparkling wine increased dramatically and spread to the American continent. The technique of manufacturing was industrialized and other regions were inspired but the reputation of champagne suffered. The commercial flight of champagne was a product of the Industrial Revolution that allowed it to be within the financial reach of the emerging middle classes. The period of the 19th century before the arrival of phylloxera was a golden age of wine. The Industrial Revolution enriched a bourgeoisie clientele for the best wines and the rural exodus to factories created a large market for mass produced wines. A prominent example for white wines was the viticulture in Germany. The feeling of freedom infused into the German winemakers under French occupation during the First Empire prevented the aristocracy and the clergy from recovering all the vineyards from which they were dispossessed. The practice of late harvest was widespread and the more or less sweet wines gained balance against their always lively acidity. In 1872, the Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute was created, and it was the source of a great amount of interbreeding giving new varieties – the best known of these is the Müller Thurgau. During the same period, Switzerland adopted, along the shores of Lake Geneva, vineyards predominantly producing white wine. During the 20th century planting vines in countries where it was unknown was booming. However, it was shaky in places with higher temperatures during fermentation. The use of larger containers creates problems during fermentation: the yeasts produce heat which cannot escape and beyond 35 °C the micro organisms begin to suffer and fermentation slows then stops. After cooling the wine a new addition of yeast is needed to resume fermentation (not to mention the adverse effects on the wine's aromas and the risk of lactic bite). In California the search for temperature control of fermentation matured. Applied to white wine they revolutionized this type of wine. European wines, marked by their processes of crushing the grapes, are diametrically opposed to those very fruity wines marked by a refreshing liveliness. During the years 1960–1990, these methods of wine making moved to Europe and the use of refrigeration equipment is now widely used in almost all regions producing white wine.

+ Percentage of white wine consumed by countries where the inhabitants each consume more than 7 litres per year Country % World average 40.6% 60% 60% 56% 53% 50% 47% 46,9% 44% 40% 39.8% 39% 37% 36% 35.1% 31% 30% 30% 28.4% 28% 27% 25.1% 25% 25% 21%

Many wine producing countries produce white wine. However, the white grape needs less heat than red grapes to ripen: The lack of maturity of tannins is not a problem since they are not extracted in pressing. In addition the taste balance is based on a significant liveliness due to the acidity. The grapes for the production of dry white wine are harvested just before ripening. These production conditions can result in a more northerly or mountainous location for the vineyard producing dry white wines. In Europe, German vineyards are predominantly white (63.1% of production area in 2006), as are the Swiss vineyards (more than 50% of the area in production are white grapes) and the Luxembourg vineyards (93% of the production area in white or grey grapes). In France the northern half produces most of the white wines (Alsace, Jura, Champagne, and the Loire Valley). In Spain, paradoxically, Castile La Mancha accounts for 50% of the Spanish vineyards, producing mostly white wine on a very large production area in a high temperature zone. The Catalonia region produces a lot of white grapes, which are transformed into Sparkling wine called Cava. The producing area for Cava is 45,000 hectares out of a total producing area of 65,600 hectares. The Americas have developed both white and red wines, some of which are now recognized worldwide. White wines have to conquer hostile territories where red wine dominates, such as the Rocky Mountains or Canada. In Canada, the technique of ice wine can produce exceptional wines in a climate which is apparently unfavourable. Canada is the largest producer of ice wine in the world. The warmer southern areas also produce white wine, but in a lower proportion. In addition, it is more often sweet or fortified wines, natural sweet wines or "vinés" wines, as in the case of vineyards around the Mediterranean (muscat, madeira, marsala etc. ).

According to Claude and Lydia Bourguignon, red wines are well suited to soil based on limestone while the best white wines are produced on soils over metamorphic rocks (Alsace, Moselle, Anjou) or volcanic rocks (Tokaj in Hungary and Slovakia). In addition, white wines are also produced on land with a limestone sub soil such as the chalky base of the Champagne wine region or the limestone under siliceous marl of Chassagne Montrachet form the backdrop to some of the most prestigious wines in the world.

The stalk (or rafle) is the herbaceous branch that bears the grapes. It consists of about 80% water, soluble minerals (nearly 3% with half of potassium) and polyphenols. The polyphenols are mainly tannins and are responsible for the bitter taste and the sensation of astringency. In the production of a white wine, the stalk does not contain any useful part: its moisture can cause dilution and the presence of tannins is not desirable in the wine. This is why it is quickly isolated from the rest of the harvest, either by shaking or by pressing.

The grape berry is made of skin, flesh (or pulp), and seeds. The seeds are hard and are 2 to 5% by weight of the berry. The seeds contain 25 45% water, 34 36% carbohydrates, 13 20% fat (the grape seed oil), 4 6% tannins, 4 6.5% protein, 2 4% minerals, and 1% fatty acids. Their contribution in white wine is zero since they are removed in the pressing, in addition, the pressure is insufficient to extract anything from the seed. The skin is 6 12% by weight of the grape. It is coated on the surface with Pruinescence, a waxy coating that gives a matte finish to the colour of the grape and contains the yeast responsible for fermentation. The grape skin also contains volatile compounds in its deeper layers. These are responsible for the aroma of the grape and for the molecules that become the aroma of wine during fermentation: They are the "aroma precursors". In red grapes, the film also contains anthocyanins or coloured matter, which is from bright to purplish red. To produce white wine from red grapes, it is necessary not to macerate the grapes, nor to press too hard on the harvest to avoid the dissolving of the anthocyanins in the grape juice. The skin contains a lot of cellulose, insoluble pectin and proteins, and organic acids: citric, malic, and tartaric acids. The skin of the Sauvignon blanc B grape has a pH of about 4.15. It also contains between 2 and 3% tannins. and accumulates in the berry, where it is a characteristic of the maturation of the grapes. Many different sugars coexist: the most common are glucose and fructose which will be consumed by anaerobic yeast to convert it to alcohol during fermentation. They are in substantially equal amounts.

The organic acids are mainly malic and tartaric acids. Tartaric acid is a characteristic of grapes; in its leaves, its content ranges from 5 to 7 grams per litre. Malic acid is present in green grapes, and its ratio decreases with maturation to give between 2 and 7 grams per litre at harvest. The range is very wide depending on the variety and soil with hot climates giving lower rates as the heat accelerates its degradation. There are many other acids in small quantities: citric acid, ascorbic acid, α ketoglutaric, fumaric acid, galacturonic acid, coumaric acid, etc. Their variable quantity varies the pH of the wort. The must of white wine is generally more acidic than red grape must simply because the grape maturity is less advanced.

Vitamin C (or ascorbic acid) is present in the grape and the must up to 50 milligrams per litre. It is a protection in the wort against the oxidation phenomenon. In the presence of oxygen it produces hydrogen peroxide; by this reaction it deprives the enzymes in the wort of oxygen that is necessary to oxidize the wine. Since 1962 the addition of vitamin C in the wine has been allowed to a maximum of 15 grams per hectolitre at the time of packaging to stabilize the wine. Experiments in the late 2000s tried to determine a method to add it to fresh harvests or in the wort. Vitamin B1 or thiamine is present at a concentration between 0.2 and 0.5 milligrams per litre. This vitamin is necessary for the proper growth of yeasts that ensure alcoholic fermentation. In the must of healthy grapes, the natural quantity is sufficient for the yeast. On the other hand, for a degraded harvest (by gray mold), the degradation of this vitamin leads the winemaker to add it to the must to ensure a trouble free fermentation. In the case of a harvest with a very clear wort and low temperature the yeast works in a limited way and the addition of thiamine can help avoid a difficult end of fermentation. Legislation limits the amount added to 30 milligrams per hectolitre.

The wort also contains minerals. Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium are most common. Potassium and also calcium can form salts with the tartaric acid: Potassium bitartrate and the neutral calcium tartrate at the pH of the wine. For these, when their solubility threshold is reached, they settle and contribute to de acidify the wort. In the southern regions where acidity is sometimes a little lacking this may be a cause of failure of extra acidity.

White winemaking is broadly similar to red winemaking although details differ when making the two types. White wine is made from white or black grapes (but always with white flesh; the grapes with coloured flesh are called Teinturier, meaning coloured juice). Once harvested, the grapes are pressed, and only the juice, called wort, is extracted. The wort is put into tanks for fermentation where sugar is transformed into alcohol by yeast present on the grapes.

Grape maturity depends on the requirement of the final product. For a sweet white wine, whether fortified or natural, sugar is the key criterion. For a dry white wine, technological maturity is calculated and the fruit is harvested just before (usually eight days) the maturity of the sugar. At this point the relationship between sugar and acid is optimal. Further, low acidity will cause the future wine to be unbalanced with excess alcohol and lack of liveliness. In addition, the flavour will be less fresh and less vivid. Traditional hand harvesting of whole bunches has been increasingly challenged by the harvesting machine for dry white wines, an economic choice but not always a qualitative one. However, for some sweet wines, a successful harvest requires manual work and training for pickers to pick only clusters where the berries have reached optimum ripeness or have been affected by noble rot (for the Sélection de Grains Nobles). Handpicking is recommended for sparkling wines and absolutely necessary for white wines from grapes with coloured skin.) depends on the variety, the temperature of maceration, the maturity of the grape, and the quality of the soil. The trampled and de stemmed harvest is then pressed. The type of wine press also affects the potential quality of the wine. Since the 1980s, pneumatic presses have improved the work involved by working in airtight conditions and allowing a fine control of the pressure to extract the juice without damaging the grapes. The juice or moût de goutte (Must of Drops) is the juice that flows naturally from the berries crushed under their own weight prior to pressing (on the way to the press). Trampling increases its proportion and makes the material profitable by processing a higher tonnage of grapes at the same time. The moût de presse ("must of the press") is the juice flowing from the press from the pressure on the grapes. It concentrates the grape's qualities or defects: It is rich in aromas, colloids, or phenolic compounds. However, it can also be marked by olfactory defects, such as the smell of fungus on spoiled grapes or the vegetable smell of a harvest with insufficient maturity. The blending or not of the moût de goutte and the moût de presse musts and release depends on the health of the grapes, the method of pressing, and the style of wine intended. Dynamic settling is performed with a machine that accelerates the separation of the wort from the lees. The centrifuge removes the largest particles but does not achieve a high level of clarity. Settling by flotation is a technique where the introduction of a gas at the bottom of the tank creates bubbles which cause the particles to rise to the surface where they are removed by a scraper. Filtration with a rotary vacuum filter is relatively slow but effective. It is often used to recover clear wort in the lees exiting the centrifuge. Gelatin is also used to flocculate the suspended tannins extracted by the press. Often associated with a bitter taste, their removal is generally beneficial for white wine. Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone or "PVPP" allows the fixing of polyphenols and eliminating them. These molecules are responsible for the browning of wine and their removal gives an element of stability in the future drink. In the "stabilisation of lees" (liquid cold stabilization) the winemaker regularly adds lees in suspension for several days so they do not settle immediately. Then he proceeds to a conventional settling as indicated above. This technique allows the enrichment of the wort with precursors of "thiol" (passion fruit, citrus ) which are naturally very soluble in the wort and are particularly suitable for some varieties such as Sauvignon and Colombard. In the "maceration of lees", the lees from the static settling are gathered in a refrigerated tank and agitated for several days. After filtration and fermentation they give a white wine also rich in thiols.

The wort is then placed in a tank to undergo fermentation. These fermentation tanks can be of several types: oak, cement coated with epoxy, stainless or enamelled steel, or epoxy resin. For large volume tanks the control of temperature, which typically is around 18 °C, For sweeter dessert wines fermentation stops spontaneously by excess sugar and alcohol: Alcohol is waste from the yeast and it is poisonous in large doses. In the case of sweet wines an addition of wine alcohol stops the fermentation. FML is not done for sweet wines as the lactic bacteria preferentially degrades sugar which would give a lactic bite (sweet and sour wine). In addition, the balance of acidity and sugar in the wine supports vivacity. A winemaking technique called "reducing" or "technology" has been developed. Very fashionable in Australia and New Zealand, this technique seeks highly aromatic white wines and is very interesting on aromatic varieties such as Sauvignon B, Colombard B, and Riesling B, although less so for varieties such as Chardonnay B. It works by limiting premature oxidation in the must or the wine at all stages of development. The use of inert gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) isolates the grapes from oxygen from the air, and cold partially inhibits the action of oxidative enzymes in the must. Tyrosinase, a natural enzyme in the grape, and laccase, an enzyme coming from the gray mold, are very active in oxidation. Laccase can be eliminated by sorting the grapes. Strong limitation on the amount of polyphenols in the wine by reducing the time between harvest and pressing is another technique that aims to make a very light wine, protected from yellowing.

After fermentation all wine requires constant care to be fit for consumption. All of these practices before bottling are known as élevage or Maturing.

Maturing can be done in a vat. It takes little time to clarify and to prepare the packaging (bottling or Bag In Box) but this may be extended by maturing of lees. This type of maturing consists of regularly adding fine lees in suspension in the wine. The dead yeast is used for the fine lees which digests itself (autolysis) giving the wine volume and body to support the fruitiness. This operation is called Bâtonnage or stirring and is traditionally done with a stick to agitate the lees at the bottom of the barrel. This technique needs to be well controlled, however, otherwise the wine may take on a Goût de réduit (Reduced taste) due to the activity of reductase sulphite from the yeast. This operation can be done in vats, as in Muscadet, barrels as in Burgundy and many chardonnays, or bottles as in champagne. This assembly can be of varietals (in the case of Bordeaux wines or wines from the Languedoc Roussillon), or blending of a vintage with varieties (in the case of champagne). This blending may be purely quantitative: various vintages can be blended to achieve the desired volume. It can also be qualitative; the taster or a team of tasters (cellar master, winemaker, owner of the estate, etc.) determine the amount of each wine to mix together in the final blend to obtain optimum quality. In winemaking blending is always empirical, it cannot be predicted that the combination of two or more vintages will give the expected product. The only secure values are analytical values (alcoholic strength, acidity, pH, etc. ).

Clarification consists of removing insoluble particles in suspension in the water alcohol solution that is the wine and stabilization is to maintain the solubility of the elements dissolved in the wine throughout the retention period in the bottle and consumption at the table. To clarify wine, it is necessary to wait for particle deposition at the bottom of the wine container but this can be accelerated by the use of oenological adhesives. These additives bind to the insoluble particles and fall to the bottom. Tannic acid (or gallotannic) C76 H52 O46 is used for the clarification of white wine, using casein, gelatin, or Isinglass.

SO2, sulphur dioxide or dioxide of sulphur is used in all winemaking operations from harvesting to packaging. It plays a protective role in the wine against the phenomena of oxidation, oxidase enzyme action (enzymes that oxidize the polyphenols in wine), and the control of microbial populations in yeasts and bacteria (antiseptic effect). The maximum allowable doses depend on the sugar content of the wine: the residual sugar is susceptible to attack by microorganisms which would cause a restart of fermentation. In France the dose is limited to 150 mg/litre for Vin de Pays (country wines), 185 mg/L for Sparkling wines, 200 mg/L for Fortified wines, 200 mg/L for dry white wines, 250 mg/L for white wines with residual sugar greater than 5 g/litre (Moelleux wines), and 300 mg/L for liquoreux sweet wines. alluded to the influence of polysaccharides, proteins, and some phenolic acids. Léglise specified that: "the term gold is used if the appearance is very bright and full of reflections, in the definition of the various nuances specific to the metal ( ) If, with proper clarity, the wine does not shed light and does not radiate reflection, we will give only the term yellow". Finally the soil can impart a flavour characteristic of a region. Thus, the mineral aromas of flint (odour of flint or of light stone) well expressed in Chardonnay B and sauvignon B, and the scent of oil is typical of old Alsatian Rieslings B. Same aromas that may be thought to be confined to red wines are found in white wines. This is the case especially in some white champagne wines partly made from black grapes and reminiscent of red fruit (strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, gooseberry,) even support ageing in new wood.

Ever since glass containers have existed, specialised glasses for each type of wine were created. Many glasses specific to white wine exist in many wine producing regions. The glass must be perfectly clear and colourless to properly appreciate the colour of the wine. However, designers and manufacturers of tableware have created white wine glasses with green or blue feet. These colours flatter the wine – they give an artificial colour in the shade (a reflection barrier which emphasizes the separation between the glass and the wine) – rejuvenating the perceived impression. Sparkling wines are served in particular glasses such as the flute and the coupe. The flute is the preferred glass for professional tasters: the shape concentrates the aromas to the nose of the taster and its height allows appreciation of the fine bubbles that rise to the surface. The coupe is not recommended because of its too flared shape: it does not preserve the layer of foam, and the gas and aromas escape too fast. According to legend, this type of glass was developed based on the shape of the Breast of the Marquise de Pompadour. The coupe dates from a time when the wines were mostly sweeter and less aromatic. Since the 1930s and with the habit to consume drier sparkling wines, the flute has taken the place of the coupe. This glass has a thin glass wall and curve calculated to be able to taste all wines. This glass is used, among others, during the approval tastings – the gateway for the wines to be entitled to bear the name of an appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC). This simple but elegant glass can also be used to serve wine at the table.

The dry white wine is a wine without sugar (the sugar ratio is generally less than 4 grams per litre). It is a wine very difficult to develop because the balance of the wine is based on only two parameters: acidity and alcohol. Before the 1950s, the traditional European wine was made in small containers where the temperature did not rise high enough to interfere with the fermentation but this method of vinification gave wine structure and roundness but was not aromatic. Chardonnay is the archetype of the great wine that can be produced with old fashioned methods. The photo below compares the colours of two Chenins B and illustrates the visual difference between a South African "technologic" wine and a "classic" French wine from the Loire Valley.

There is a wide variety of sweet wines, from slightly sweet all the way to Fortified wine with the consistency of syrup. The origin of the sugar is from the grape. The fermentation is stopped before it ends, although the practice of chaptalization has changed the practice in certain wine regions. Many techniques exist to concentrate the sugar:
"Passerillage with straining" or "late harvest" consists of leaving the grapes on the vine to concentrate the sun. The sugar no longer builds up once reaching maturity but the water evaporates which lowers the yield but increases the concentration of sugar. This is the oldest and most common method. It can be improved by plucking the stems: the winemaker prevents sap reaching the cluster and so it dries faster. The annular incision, long practiced, involves removing a ring of bark on the branch below the clusters. The sweet sap cannot descend and is concentrated in the grapes, while the sap continues to feed the upper branch. Another quick method is to cut a portion of the stem. The grape is dried upstream, but the downstream section progresses normally. The blending in the vat or the press of two types of grapes improves the final result. "Passerillage without straining" is a practice of concentrating the grapes before pressing. The grapes are hung in an attic or on trays for the time it takes for some of the water they contain to evaporate. This method is the raw material of straw wine
"noble rot" is a method of concentration depending on climatic conditions. The Botrytis cinerea creates microscopic perforations of the grape skin through which water is allowed to evaporate while maintaining the other components. The action of botrytis induces different flavours in the grape related to chemical reactions in the berry. The precocity of the varietal land and low vigour of the vine are favourable to the action of noble rot and helps prevent gray rot. This type of grape is used for the production of Hungarian Tokaji, fortified wines of Aquitaine (Sauternes, Barsac, Loupiac, Monbazillac, etc. ), and some selections of noble rot berries in Alsace and Germany: Trockenbeerenauslese. "Freezing of grapes" and cold pressing are used to squeeze the liquid part of the berries. The flakes of frozen water remain in the press and only the sweet juice flows. This is the principle of ice wine. Cryoextraction is a recent technique invented to reproduce the phenomenon in regions that are not cold enough: The grapes are artificially frozen before being pressed. This method overcomes the climate, and harvesting work can continue without waiting for the frosts (risk of loss of the grapes by weather accident or attack by hungry sparrows), but shortening the maturation does not give the same flavour.

A fortified wine is a wine in which there has been an addition of alcohol. This category includes three types of wine products depending on the fermentation stage where the fortification took place:
The mistelles or dessert wines are grape juices whose fermentation has been prevented by fortification with alcohol. Although the absence of fermentation can lead to discussion of their qualification as wine, it is nevertheless an alcoholic grape product. The Pineau des Charentes, the floc de Gascogne, and the macvin du Jura are three AOC French mistelles. The Vin doux naturel or sweet wines are wines where fermentation was stopped before completion. The added alcohol retains the grape sugar and guarantees its smooth taste. The majority of muscat wines fall into this category (Muscat de Beaumes de Venise, Muscat de Rivesaltes, Muscat de Mireval, Moscatell Catalan, Moscato d'Asti etc.) as do white port, and Madeira. The vins mutés secs or dry fortified wines are dry wines (without sugar) whose fermentation was completed. A quantity of alcohol is added to increase their alcohol content. They age for a long time giving wines with the ability to be kept for a very long time. These wines are the sherries and some dry white ports.

The temperature of service is a criterion to put wine in the best condition for drinking. The wine must be chilled but not be served with ice. Between 8 and 9 °C, the chill will accentuate the liveliness of the bubbles and reduce the sweetness of a sweet or Fortified wine. For an aromatic dry wine service between 10 and 12 °C stimulates vivacity and gives freshness to the flavours. Finally, the great white wines are best at a temperature between 12 and 14 °C which allows the flavours and the structure to be revealed.

The acidity of dry white wine is reduced by slightly salty or sweet dishes while the wine accentuates the salty side of food and tempers heavy fatty foods. Sweet wine goes well with sweet and savoury dishes to mitigate the heavy sugar and stimulate the fruitiness. For an aperitif, flavoured dry wine or sparkling wine goes with all meals. Specialists in tasting consider that the sugar or alcohol in some wines has a saturating effect on the taste buds, by contrast the fruity liveliness awakens them to the meal to come. At mealtimes very dry wines with little minerals are recommended with oysters and seafood: their acidity reveals the salinity of the shellfish. The most fragrant wines go well with shellfish, fish, or poached white meat. Dry wines with mineral aromas such as chardonnay or sauvignon blanc bring out the milky taste of goat cheese. Aromatic wines, such as Gewurztraminer and some sparkling wines support the strong taste of Washed rind cheeses (Maroilles, Époisses, Munster, etc.). Neutral white wines (Castilla La Mancha, Italian Trebbiano) are well suited to sheep cheese and there are also Manchego and pecorino romano for a little spicy. The cooked pressed cheeses require a bold wine, woodland. There is perfect agreement between the Comté cheese and the yellow wine of the Jura. Fortified wines are recommended with veined cheeses (Blue or Roquefort). In this case, the cheese mould (Penicillium roqueforti) and the wine (noble rot) form a harmonious whole. White wine is also a dessert wine. All choices are allowed even if the sweet and fortified wines are more suitable for this. Perfumed wines (Gewurztraminer, Muscat), sparkling, and sweet wines accord well with fruit desserts (salad, tart). The fortified and sparkling wines support rich desserts made with cream or butter. The role of white wine is similar to that of lemon juice used under the same conditions: once verjuice also fulfilled this function. The vinegar combines acidity with a burning sensation that gives recipes where it is used a bittersweet side characteristic. As a means to balance the fat, white wine is involved in the preparation of sauces such as ravigote sauce, béarnaise sauce, marinara sauce, etc. The drippings of cooking juices is also a role that white wine can be used in; made with a sweet white wine and giving a sour sweet or sweet salt sauce. In cheese fondue the liveliness of dry white wine is balanced with the fat of the cheese. The freshness of the wine as a table drink contrasts the heat of the fondue. In marinades its power to soften the protein fibre is used. Sometimes it can even happen in cooking such as in Italian style tuna carpaccio. White wine is also used as a wetting agent for slow cooking. In this type of dish it combines the flexibility of the meat and balances the fat from the sauce. It plays this role in the case of cabbage, baeckeoffe or risotto, and in the gravy in the preparation of white meat as in osso buco or blanquette de veau (veal stew), Chicken with morels and its variants, Chicken à la comtoise and Yellow coq au vin, rabbit or with charcuterie such as diots and tripe. It can also be used to prepare fish and seafood dishes such as pôchouse with Burgundy wine, monkfish stew, Flounder stew, mussels in white wine, or a Seafood Pot au feu. A common rule by gourmets is to serve at table the same wine that has been used in cooking.

Because of its shorter maceration, white wine contains very little tannin and therefore little antioxidants that make red wine so interesting medically speaking. However, a team of researchers from Montpellier has developed a white wine enriched with polyphenols. The sulphur dioxide additive commonly used in wine is not harmful in the amounts used but its effects are feared among asthmatics: it can cause the onset of a crisis (Difficulty breathing). Symptoms such as difficulty breathing, migraine, or stomach heat sensation may indicate an intolerance. A reaction caused by a deficiency of sulphite oxidase (the enzyme that breaks down Sulphur Dioxide) is very rare. Studies are underway to investigate whether some of the symptoms attributed to Sulphur Dioxide could not come from another molecule present in the wine. White wine is an acidic beverage with a pH ranging from 2.8 to 3.6. This acidity is an aggressive element to tooth enamel. In addition it contains alcohol which is expressed in degrees or percentage. This alcohol can be responsible for cirrhosis. This disease can occur from a regular consumption of 20 grams per day for women and 40 grams per day for men. However, some studies in California may indicate beneficial effect of wine at a low daily dose for non alcoholic cirrhosis. In recent studies white wine was indicated to have some cardiovascular benefits. As well, white wine contains antioxidants, although red wine contains higher levels of antioxidants. Both white and red wines are effective in preventing LDL oxidation.

Having been lost in a shipwreck, a case of 1907 Heidsieck was discovered in 1997. At auction each bottle made $275,000 making them the most expensive bottles of white wine ever sold.