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Last common ancestor of all varieties of Greek

The Proto Greek language (also known as Proto Hellenic) is the Indo European language which was the last common ancestor of all varieties of Greek, including Mycenaean Greek, the subsequent ancient Greek dialects (i. e., Attic, Ionic, Aeolic, Doric, Arcadocypriot, and ancient Macedonian—either a dialect or a closely related Hellenic language) and, ultimately, Koine, Byzantine and Modern Greek (along with its variants). Proto Greek speakers entered Greece sometime between 2200 and 1900BC,

Proto Greek emerged from the diversification of the late Proto Indo European language (PIE); a process whose last phase gave rise to the later language families and occurred c. 2500 BC. Pre Proto Greek, the Indo European dialect from which Proto Greek originated, emerged c. 2400 – c. 2200 BC, in an area which bordered pre Proto Indo Iranian to the east and pre Proto Armenian and pre Proto Phrygian to the west, at the eastern borders of southeastern Europe; according to the Kurgan hypothesis. Speakers of what would become Proto Greek, migrated from their homeland (which could have been northeast of the Black Sea), and reached Greece in a date set around the transition of the Early Bronze Age to the Middle Bronze Age. The evolution of Proto Greek could be considered within the context of an early Paleo Balkan sprachbund that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages. The characteristically Greek representation of word initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared, for one, with the Armenian language, which also seems to share some other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek; this has led some linguists to propose a hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, although evidence remains scant. According to Filos (2014), the emergence of Proto Greek was a long and continuous linguistic evolution, as the predecessors of Greek speakers were migrating towards the outskirts of Greece, somewhere to the north( west) of the Greek peninsula proper, where they eventually merged with pre Greek populations to form the Proto Greek language. A. L. Katona (2000) places the beginning of the migration from Ukraine towards the south c. 2400 – c. 2300 BC. Their proposed route of migration passed through Romania and the eastern Balkans to the Evros river valley from where their main body moved west. As such Katona as well as M. V Sakellariou agree that the main body of Greek speakers settled in a region that included southwestern Illyria, Epirus, northwestern Thessaly and western Macedonia. Older theories like those of Vladimir I. Georgiev placed Proto Greek in northwestern Greece and adjacent areas (approximately up to the Aulon river to the north), including Parauaea, Tymphaia, Athamania, Dolopia, Amphilochia, and Acarnania, as well as west and north Thessaly (Histiaeotis, Perrhaibia, Tripolis), and Pieria in Macedonia, during the Late Neolithic. The boundaries are based on the high concentration of archaic Greek place names in the region, in contrast to southern Greece which preserves many pre Greek. However, the dating of proto Greek in Bronze Age Greece is compatible with the inherited lexicon from the common Proto Indo European language, which excludes any possibility of it being present in Neolithic Greece. In modern bibliography, models about the settlement and development of proto Greek speakers in the Greek peninsula place it in the region at the earliest around 2200–2000 BC, during the Early Helladic III. while Carl Blegen (1928) dates it to c. 1900 BC.

Ivo Hajnal dates the beginning of the diversification of Proto Greek into the subsequent Greek dialects to a point not significantly earlier than 1700BC. The conventional division of the Greek dialects prior to 1955 differentiated them between a West Greek (consisting of Doric and Northwest Greek) and an East Greek (consisting of Aeolic, Arcado Cypriot, and Attic Ionic) group. However, after the decipherment of the Linear B script, Walter Porzig and Ernst Risch argued for a division between a Northern (consisting of Doric, Northwest Greek, and Aeolic) and a Southern (consisting of Mycenaean, Arcado Cypriot, and Attic Ionic) group, which remains fundamental until today.

The primary sound changes separating Proto Greek from the Proto Indo European language include the following.

After the first palatalization changed *ty and *tʰy into *t͡s, the consonant *y was restored after original *t or *tʰ in morphologically transparent formations. The initial outcome of restoration may have been simply *ty and *tʰy, or alternatively, restoration may have yielded an affricate followed by a glide, *t͡sy, in the case of both original *t and original *tʰ. Either way, restored *t(ʰ)y would go on to merge via the second palatalization with the reflex of *k(ʰ)y, resulting in a distinct outcome from the *t͡s derived from the first palatalization. There may also have been restoration of *y after original *d in the same circumstances, but if so, it apparently merged with the *d͡z that resulted from the first palatalization before leaving any visible trace. However, restoration is not evident in Mycenaean Greek, where the reflex of original *t(ʰ)y (which became a consonant transcribed as ⟨s⟩) is consistently written differently from the reflex of original *k(ʰ)y (which became a consonant transcribed as ⟨z⟩ via the second palatalization).

Osthoff's law: Shortening of long vowels before a sonorant in the same syllable. E. g. "skyling, sky god" > Attic Greek Zeús Cowgill's law: Raising of to between a resonant and a labial.

The pronouns hoûtos, ekeînos and autós are created. The use of ho, hā, to as articles is post Mycenaean.

Proto Greek inherited the augment, a prefix e , to verbal forms expressing past tense. That feature is shared only with Indo Iranian and Phrygian (and to some extent, Armenian), lending some support to a "Graeco Aryan" or "Inner PIE" proto dialect. However, the augment down to the time of Homer remained optional and was probably little more than a free sentence particle, meaning "previously" in the proto language, which may easily have been lost by most other branches. Greek, Phrygian, and Indo Iranian also concur in the absence of r endings in the middle voice, in Greek apparently already lost in Proto Greek. The first person middle verbal desinences mai, mān replace ai, a. The third singular phérei is an innovation by analogy, replacing the expected Doric *phéreti, Ionic *phéresi (from PIE *). The future tense is created, including a future passive as well as an aorist passive. The suffix ka is attached to some perfects and aorists. Infinitives in ehen, enai and men are created.

Proto Greek numerals were derived directly from Indo European. "one": héns (masculine), hmía (feminine) (> Myc. (Mycenaean Greek) (dative); Att. (Attic Greek)/Ion. (Ionian Greek) εἷς (ἑνός), μία, , )
"two": dúwō (> Myc. (Mycenaean Greek) ; Hom. (Homeric Greek) δύω, ; Att. (Attic Greek) Ion. (Ionian Greek) δύο, )
"three": tréyes (> Myc. (Mycenaean Greek) ; Att. (Attic Greek)/Ion. (Ionian Greek) τρεῖς, ; Lesb. (Lesbian Greek) τρής, ; Cret. (Cretan Greek) τρέες, )
"four": nominative kʷétwores, genitive kʷeturṓn (> Myc. (Mycenaean Greek) "four eared"; Att. (Attic Greek) τέτταρες, ; Ion. (Ionian Greek) τέσσερες, ; Boeot. (Boeotic Greek) πέτταρες, ; Thess. (Thessalonian Greek) πίτταρες, ; Lesb. (Lesbian Greek) πίσυρες, ; Dor. (Doric Greek) τέτορες, )
"five": pénkʷe (> Att. (Attic Greek) Ion. (Ionian Greek) πέντε, ; Lesb. (Lesbian Greek), Thess. (Thessalonian Greek) πέμπε, )
"six": hwéks (> Att. (Attic Greek) ἕξ, ; Dor. (Doric Greek) ϝέξ, )
"seven": heptə́ (> Att. (Attic Greek) ἑπτά, )
"eight": oktṓ (> Att. (Attic Greek) ὀκτώ, )
"nine": ennéwə (> Att. (Attic Greek) ἐννέα, ; Dor. (Doric Greek) ἐννῆ, )
"ten": dékə (> Att. (Attic Greek) δέκα, )
"hundred": hekətón (> Att. (Attic Greek) ἑκατόν, )
"thousand": kʰéhliyoi (> Att. (Attic Greek) χίλιοι, )