12 ғасырдағы Ирландияға ағыл-нормандардың шапқыны

12th century invasion of Ireland by Anglo Normans

The Anglo Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which the kings of England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanctioned by the papal bull Laudabiliter. At the time, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over most of the other kings. The Anglo Norman invasion was a watershed in Ireland's history, marking the beginning of more than 800 years of direct English and, later, British, conquest and colonialism in Ireland. In May 1169, Anglo Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh), the deposed King of Leinster, who sought their help in regaining his kingship. They achieved this within weeks and raided neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention was sanctioned by King Henry II of England. In return, Diarmait had sworn loyalty to Henry and promised land to the Normans. In 1170, there were further Norman landings, led by the Earl of Pembroke, Richard "Strongbow" de Clare. They seized the important Norse Irish towns of Dublin and Waterford, and Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter Aoífe. Diarmait died in May 1171 and Strongbow claimed Leinster, which Diarmait had promised him. Led by High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Conor), a coalition of most of the Irish kingdoms besieged Dublin, while Norman held Waterford and Wexford were also attacked. However, the Normans managed to hold most of their territory. In October 1171, King Henry landed with a large army to assert control over both the Anglo Normans and the Irish. This intervention was supported by the Roman Catholic Church, who saw it as a means of ensuring Irish religious reform, and a source of taxes. At the time, Irish marriage laws conflicted with those of the broader Church, and the Gregorian Reform had not been fully implemented. Henry granted Strongbow Leinster as a fiefdom, declared the Norse Irish towns to be crown land, and arranged the synod of Cashel to reform the Irish church. Many Irish kings also submitted to him, likely in the hope that he would curb Norman expansion, but Henry granted the unconquered kingdom of Meath to Hugh de Lacy. After Henry's departure in 1172, fighting between the Normans and Irish continued. The 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of the conquered territory and Ruaidrí as overlord of the remainder of Ireland, with Ruaidrí also swearing fealty to Henry. The Treaty soon collapsed: Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms and the Irish continued to attack the Normans. In 1177, Henry adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be the "Lord of Ireland" (i. e. claiming the whole island) and authorised the Norman lords to conquer more land. The territory they held became the Lordship of Ireland, part of the Angevin Empire. The Normans' success has been attributed to military superiority and castle building, the lack of a unified opposition from the Irish and the support of the church for Henry's intervention.

In the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from the other kings but did not rule Ireland as a unitary state, though it had a common culture and legal system. The five port towns of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse Irish and had their own rulers. The Normans conquered England between 1066 and 1075, with all earldoms thereafter held by Normans, as were all bishoprics after 1096. In parallel, the Treaty of Abernethy created a limited settlement between the Norman conquerors and Scotland, with lands in Cumbria exchanged for peace. Over the following decades, Norman lords conquered much of south Wales and established their own semi independent lordships there. According to historian John Gillingham, after the Norman conquest, an imperialist attitude emerged among England's new French speaking ruling elite, and they came to view their Celtic neighbours as inferior and barbarous.

It is thought that the Dublin Leinster army in the 1014 Battle of Clontarf may have included troops from the Duchy of Normandy. Irish church leaders had legislated for reform, notably at the synods of Cashel (1101), Ráth Breasail (1111) and Kells (1152). These reforms, intended to tighten attitudes towards marriage, clerical celibacy, the sacramental system, and control of church lands and offices, "would demand the abandonment of features of Gaelic society going back to pre Christian times and of practises which had been accepted for centuries by the church in Ireland." Implementing the reforms was slow and difficult. Salisbury had been inspired in his views on the Irish by the "Life of Malachy", written by Malachy's friend, Bernard of Clairvaux. This hagiography, written within a year of Malachy's death in 1148, depicted the Irish, in fact highly Christianised, in exaggerated terms as barbaric, semi pagan and in need of reform. He led a coalition—that included Tigernán Ua Ruairc (Tiernan O'Rourke) of Bréifne (Breffny), Diarmait Ua Maelsechlainn (Dermot O'Melaghlin) of Míde (Meath), the Norse Irish of Dublin, and several Leinster princes and sought help from Henry II in regaining his kingship. Henry gave Diarmait permission to recruit forces and authorised his subjects to help Diarmait, in return for Diarmait swearing loyalty to Henry. Among other benefits, a loyal Diarmait restored to power would allow the fleet of Dublin to be used in Anglo Norman campaigns against the Welsh and Scots. Several Marcher Lords agreed to help: Richard FitzGilbert de Clare (also known as Strongbow), Robert FitzStephen, Maurice FitzGerald, and Maurice de Prendergast. Diarmait promised Strongbow his daughter Aífe in marriage and the kingship of Leinster upon Diarmait's death. He promised Robert and Maurice the town of Wexford and two neighbouring cantreds. Under Irish law, Diarmait had no right to do this. Having secured their help, he returned to his home territory of Uí Ceinnselaig (Hy Kinsella) in 1167 with one knight, Richard FitzGodebert, and a small number of soldiers. He smoothly resumed power as chief and awaited the arrival of his allies. King Ruaidrí and Tigernán confronted him with a small force and there was a skirmish at Killistown. Diarmait gave hostages to Ruaidrí and a hundred ounces of gold to Tigernán, and FitzGodebert left Ireland. On 1 May 1169, Robert FitzStephen and Maurice de Prendergast landed at Bannow Bay, on the south coast of County Wexford, with a force of at least 40 knights, 60 men at arms and 360 archers. This force merged with about 500 men led by Diarmait. They set about conquering Leinster and the territories Diarmait had claimed sovereignty over. First they besieged the Norse Irish seaport of Wexford, which surrendered after two days. They then raided and plundered the territories of north Leinster, which had refused to submit to Diarmait. They also raided the neighbouring kingdom of Ossory, defeating the forces of king Donnchad Mac Gilla Patraic (Donagh MacGillapatrick) in the battle of Achad Úr. However, Donnchad withdrew his forces to safety. Prendergast then announced he was withdrawing from Ireland with his 200 men, but Diarmait would not let them set sail from Wexford. In response, Prendergast offered his men as mercenaries to Donnchad of Ossory, which Donnchad accepted. An agreement was reached at Ferns: Diarmait was acknowledged as king of Leinster, in return for acknowledging Ruaidrí as his overlord and agreeing to send his foreign allies away permanently. Shortly after the Ferns agreement, Maurice FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 10 knights, 30 mounted archers and 100 foot archers. In a show of strength, Maurice and Diarmait marched an army north and laid waste to the hinterland of Dublin.

By 1170, Strongbow appears to have been funded financially for his invasion by a Jewish merchant by the name of Josce of Gloucester: "Josce, Jew of Gloucester, owes 100 shillings for an amerciament for the moneys which he lent to those who against the king's prohibition went over to Ireland." In May of that year, Raymond FitzGerald landed at Bannow Bay with at least 10 knights and 70 archers. This was the advance guard for Strongbow's army and was to be the springboard for an assault on Waterford. Raymond's force occupied an old promontory fort at Baginbun and plundered the surrounding countryside. In the ensuing havoc, the Normans routed the besiegers, killing up to 500 and capturing 70. These captives were then executed: the Normans broke their limbs before beheading them and throwing their bodies off the cliff. They met with Raymond's force and assaulted Waterford. The walls were eventually breached and there followed fierce fighting in the streets, in which 700 defenders were killed. The Normans and Diarmait held a council of war at Waterford and agreed to take Dublin. High King Ruaidrí encamped a large army near Dublin to intercept them. As well as troops from Connacht, it included troops from Breffny (led by King Tigernán), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn), and Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill). The Normans and Diarmait bypassed them by travelling over the Wicklow Mountains, forcing Ruaidrí's army to abandon their plans. When they reached Dublin, Diarmait began negotiations with its king, Ascall mac Ragnaill (Ascall MacRannall). On 21 September, while talks were ongoing, a force of Normans—led by Miles de Cogan and Raymond FitzGerald—stormed the town and took it. Ascall and his followers fled in their ships but vowed to re take the town. Strongbow and Diarmait then launched "a devastating campaign" through Meath and into Breffny, burning Clonard, Kells, and several other monastic towns. In response to these violations of the Ferns agreement, Ruaidrí executed three hostages, including Diarmait's son. Strongbow then claimed Leinster, as Diarmait had promised Strongbow he would inherit the kingdom upon his death, as his son in law through Aífe. However, Strongbow would not have been deemed Diarmait's heir under either Irish or English law, with Diarmait having two wives, as well as sons and other daughters. It is suggested that Strongbow's succession was justified in English law by having Aífe's mother deemed to be his only legitimate wife, leaving Aífe as his only legitimate heir. Furthermore, Strongbow's succession was not justified in Irish law, as succession to kingship was elective, and could only be passed on through the male line. Strongbow gave Domnall jurisdiction over his Irish subjects in most of Leinster. Diarmait was succeeded as ruler of Uí Ceinnselaig (his home territory) by his brother Murchad, In early 1171, Henry ordered that his subjects return to his realm or all their possessions would be seized. Strongbow reminded Henry that he had gone to Ireland with Henry's permission, to restore Diarmait to the kingship, and that whatever he had gained in Ireland was "by the grace and favour of Henry, and was at his disposal". By September 1171, Henry had decided to lead a military expedition to Ireland, and summoned Strongbow to meet him at Pembroke while the army was assembling. An English historian of the time, William of Newburgh, wrote that Henry wanted to have "the glory of such a famous conquest" and its proceeds for himself. The Norman lords affirmed their loyalty to Henry and handed over the territory they had conquered to him. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared Dublin, Wexford and Waterford to be crown land. Fifteen Irish kings and chiefs submitted to Henry, likely in the hope that he would curb unprovoked Norman expansion into their territories. Those who did not submit included Ruaidrí

The Irish church hierarchy also submitted to Henry, believing his intervention would bring greater political stability. He organised the synod of Cashel, at which Irish church leaders acknowledged him as their "temporal overlord". This may have been due to their realisation that the Gregorian Reforms were not compatible with Gaelic society. Pope Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III, sent letters to the Irish bishops, telling them to accept Henry as their overlord in accordance with the oaths sworn by its kings, or face ecclesiastical censure. He ratified the Laudabiliter and purported to give Henry dominion over Ireland, to ensure religious reform and ensure the Irish paid their tax to Rome. The synod sought to bring Irish church practices into line with those of England, and new monastic communities and military orders (such as the Templars) were introduced into Ireland. In early 1172, Henry allowed de Lacy to take royal troops into Meath, where they plundered and burned the monastic towns of Fore and Killeigh. Henry also made Dublin available for the freemen of Bristol to colonise. Many of the Norse Irish inhabitants were forced to re settle outside the walls, at what became Oxmantown. Henry left Ireland on 17 April 1172, setting sail from Wexford. Some English writers – such as William of Canterbury and Ralph Niger – condemned Henry's military intervention, describing it as an unlawful "hostile invasion" and "conquest". A poem in the Welsh Black Book of Carmarthen describes Henry "crossing the salt sea to invade the peaceful homesteads of Ireland", causing "war and confusion". Gerald de Barri felt obliged to refute what he called the "vociferous complaints that the kings of England hold Ireland unlawfully". Strongbow also invaded and plundered Offaly, but failed to subdue it. When Raymond FitzGerald returned later that year, he led a successful plundering raid into the kingdom of the Déisi, by both land and sea even though, as their king had submitted to Henry, the kingdom should have been exempt from attack. The Norman raid on the monastic town of Lismore was interrupted by a Norse Irish fleet from Cork. After a naval engagement, the Normans withdrew to Waterford. In late 1173, Diarmait Mac Murchada's son, Domhnall Caomhánach (Donal Cavanagh), attacked Strongbow's forces in Leinster, killing 200 men. Around the same time, an Irish army from Thomond and Connacht, led by Domnall Ua Briain (Donal O'Brian), forced the Normans out of Kilkenny and destroyed Strongbow's motte and bailey castle there. Strongbow responded in early 1174 by marching an army into Thomond and advancing towards Limerick. At the Battle of Thurles, Domnall Ua Briain's forces defeated a contingent of Strongbow's army, killing thousands and forcing him to abandon the march to Limerick. Ruaidrí gathered an army that included contingents from Connacht, Meath, Breffny, Oriel, Ulster, and the Northern Uí Néill, along with their kings. It marched into Meath, destroying the castles at Trim and Duleek, before advancing on Dublin. Raymond FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 30 knights, 100 mounted soldiers and 300 archers. When this army arrived at Dublin and reinforced the garrison there, Ruaidrí's army withdrew.

On 6 October 1175, Henry II of England and High King Ruaidrí agreed to the Treaty of Windsor. The treaty divided Ireland into two spheres of influence: Henry was acknowledged as overlord of the Norman held territory, and Ruaidrí was acknowledged as overlord of the rest of Ireland. and Ruaidrí was unable to control all of the Irish kings. Contemporary English historian William of Newburgh wrote that "the military commanders left there by him [Henry] for the government of this subjugated province, desirous either of booty or fame, by degrees extended the boundaries allotted to them". In April 1176, a large Anglo Norman army from Dublin marched north into what is now County Armagh. This was part of Oriel, a kingdom meant to be free from encroachment under the treaty. However, the Irish of Oriel forced the Anglo Normans to retreat and killed up to 500 of their soldiers. Strongbow died in May 1176, and Henry appointed William FitzAldelm as his new representative in Ireland. He was replaced the following year by Hugh de Lacy. In February 1177, John de Courcy left Dublin with a force of about 22 knights and 500 soldiers. De Courcy swiftly marched north, into the kingdom of Ulaid, and captured the town of Downpatrick. The Ulaid, led by king Ruaidrí Mac Duinnsléibe (Rory MacDunleavy), tried to re take the town but were repelled after a fierce battle. King Henry held a council at Oxford in May 1177, which marked a change of policy towards Ireland. He declared his son John (aged ten) to be "Lord of Ireland", and made plans for him to become king of all Ireland when he came of age. The territory held by the Anglo Normans thus became known as the Lordship of Ireland and formed part of the Angevin Empire. Henry also encouraged the Anglo Norman lords to conquer more territory. He granted the kingdom of Thomond to Philip de Braose and granted Desmond to Robert FitzStephen and Miles de Cogan. This is assumed merely because they were vassals of the king of England, and not because they were culturally Anglo Saxon Although, the majority of the settlers were probably infact Anglo Saxons not Anglo Normans and the language they spoke was middle English, which evident by the surviving dialects of Fingallian in Dublin and Yola dialect of Wexford These middle English dialects were once far more wide spread in Ireland after the Old English invasion of the east coast. Giving us a glimpse into the language spoken by the majority of the settlers who arrived in the 12th 13th centuries. Expugnatio Hibernica almost always describes them as English; so too does The Song of Dermot and the Earl, a source which uses the term "English" about eighty times, whilst using "French", "Flemings", and "Normans" in only one particular line. Despite the modern employment of terms such as "Normans", "Anglo Normans" (itself an eighteenth century construct), and "Cambro Normans", contemporary sources virtually never use "Norman" in an Irish context. In consequence, it is apparent that contemporaries regarded the incomers as English, regardless of their actual mother tongue, ethnicity or geographic origin. In the nineteenth century, however, during a period of intense and sensitive political debate, the term was dropped by historians and replaced with ahistorical terms. In modern historiography on Irish history, historians differ in describing the Anglo Norman invasion as being carried out by "Normans" or the "English".