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Culinary traditions of Taiwan

Taiwanese cuisine (, Bopomofo: ㄊㄞˊㄨㄢˉㄌㄧㄠˋㄌㄧˇ, or , Bopomofo: ㄊㄞˊㄨㄢˉㄘㄞˋ) is a popular style of food with several variations, including Chinese and that of Taiwanese indigenous peoples, with the earliest cuisines known of being the indigenous ones. With over a hundred years of historical development, mainstream Taiwanese cuisine has been influenced by Hakka cuisine, the cuisines of the waishengren (people of other provinces), Japanese cuisine, and American cuisine, with southern Fujian cuisine having had the most profound impact. Taiwan's cuisine is tied to its history of colonization and modern politics makes the description of Taiwanese cuisine difficult. As Taiwan developed economically fine dining became increasingly popular. Taiwanese cuisine has significant regional variations. Night markets in Taiwan form a significant part of the food culture. Vegetarian and vegan food are very common. Taiwanese cuisine is popular around the world with some items like bubble tea and Taiwanese fried chicken becoming global phenomena.

According to Katy Hui wen Hung, "Taiwanese food history is as murky as Taiwanese politics". This is because Taiwanese cuisine is intricately tied to patterns of migration and colonization. Local and international Taiwanese cuisine, including its history, is a politically contentious topic. Taiwan's complex and diverse identity makes Taiwanese cuisine difficult to define. Tense political relations between Taiwan and China also complicate the history. Due to the period of Japanese rule, Taiwanese cuisine was also strongly influenced by Japanese washoku and yōshoku. During Japanese rule Japanese dishes and foodways such as bento, The authenticity of regional Chinese cuisine in Taiwan has been challenged. Some sources trace the origin of instant noodles to Taiwan’s jisi noodles, in particular a variation deep fried in pork fat to be later boiled in water before serving introduced by the Qingji Ice Dessert Parlor in 1951. Following the commercialization of instant noodles Taiwanese companies including Uni President. In 1973 Wei Lih Food Industrial introduced the first packaged instant noodle meant to be consumed "dry" (without soup or with soup on the side). The Tatung electric steamer was introduced in the 1960s and became a staple of Taiwanese home and restaurant kitchens. The widespread adoption of the food court during the 20th century formalized more traditional hawkers and vendors. Food courts also became an important part of the malls and shopping centers which proliferated across Taiwan. In the early 21st century, ideas about sustainability and local food became more prominent in Taiwanese culinary and agricultural circles. An increased emphasis has been placed on understanding the history of food as well as incorporating indigenous foodways into mainstream Taiwanese cuisine. During the Japanese Colonial period, Taiwanese cuisine was divided. High end restaurants, or wine houses, served Chinese cuisine such as Peking duck, shark fin with bird's nest soup, and braised turtle to the colonial elite. In the meantime, those without wealth or connections primarily ate rice, porridge, pickled vegetables, and sweet potato leaves. Cooking oil was considered a luxury and was only used for special occasions. Taiwan's cuisine has also been influenced by its geographic location. Living on a crowded island, the Taiwanese had to look aside from the farmlands for sources of protein. As a result, seafood figures prominently in their cuisine. This seafood encompasses many different things, from large fish such as tuna and grouper, to sardines and even smaller fish such as anchovies. Crustaceans, squid, and cuttlefish are also eaten. Milkfish is the most popular fish in Taiwanese cuisine; it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. This stems from traditional reluctance toward slaughtering precious cattle needed for agriculture, and an emotional attachment and feeling of gratitude and thanks to the animals traditionally used for very hard labor. Because of the island's sub tropical location, Taiwan has an abundant supply of various fruit, such as papayas, starfruit, melons, and citrus fruit. A wide variety of tropical fruits, imported and native, are also enjoyed in Taiwan. Other agricultural products in general are rice, corn, tea, pork, poultry, beef, fish and other fruits and vegetables. Fresh ingredients in Taiwan are readily available from markets. In many of their dishes, the Taiwanese have shown their creativity in their selection of spices. Typical spice mixes in Taiwanese cuisine are five spice powder and hujiaoyan (a mixture of white pepper, salt, MSG, and sugar). Taiwanese cuisine relies on an abundant array of seasonings for flavor: soy sauce, rice wine, sesame oil, fermented black beans, pickled radish, pickled mustard greens, peanuts, chili peppers, cilantro (sometimes called Chinese parsley) and a local variety of basil Widespread use of sugar is part of the legacy of Taiwan's commercial sugar industry. Taiwanese black vinegar has more in common with Worcestershire sauce than other black vinegars and is considered an outlier among black vinegars. Its base is sticky rice which is then aged with other ingredients in clay pots. It is used as a condiment and seasoning. Kong Yen is the largest producer of Taiwanese black vinegar. According to Bon Appetit, compared to Chinese black vinegars it is "simpler, fruitier, and cleaner." Taiwanese soy paste is a soy sauce based paste thickened with rice flour and sugar. Taiwanese mayonnaise is made with both egg whites and egg yolks and is sweetened. An important part of Taiwanese cuisine is xiaochi (小吃), substantial snacks along the lines of Spanish tapas or Levantine meze. The Taiwanese xiaochi has gained much reputation internationally. Many travelers go to Taiwan just for xiǎochī. The most common place to enjoy xiǎochī in Taiwan is in a night market. Each night market also has its famous xiǎochī. Modern Taiwanese cuisine is influenced by Taiwan's freedom and openness which enables chefs to innovate and experiment. Roadside banquet chefs are ubiquitous in Taiwan; these small (often single person) catering firms provide on location cooking for wedding banquets and other celebrations often held on the roadside. During the COVID 19 pandemic these chefs saw a significant downturn in business due to the lack of people hosting large traditional functions, especially those around the Lunar New Year. The banquet industry returned after the pandemic but have faced criticism for a lack of innovation and the repetition of traditional dishes.

Vegetarian restaurants are commonplace in Taiwan with a wide variety of dishes, mainly due to the influence of Buddhism and other syncretistic religions like I Kuan Tao. In the 21st century, Taiwan has seen a rise in non religious vegetarians, especially among the young. There has also been a rise in veganism with concerns about animal welfare, personal health, environmental sustainability, and climate change driving both trends. Taiwan's traditional vegetarian products companies have also expanded into the booming fake meat market. The traditional culinary use of fake meat in Taiwan has given Taiwanese companies an edge and Taiwan is now a market leader in the fake meat sector. Taiwanese companies do a significant amount of export business, particularly in the European, North American, and Southeast Asian markets. Hung Yang Foods, one of the largest producers of fake meat products, does 80% of their business overseas with their products being stocked in 90% of Australian supermarkets. In 2023, there were approximately 6,000 vegetarian restaurants in Taiwan.

It seems that an interest in Taiwanese indigenous cuisine gained traction in the media in the mid 1990s, developing alongside increasing governmental action to protect and recognize Taiwanese indigenous peoples. There are restaurants around Taipei that keep the spirit of Indigenous cuisine alive. Whilst chefs in such restaurants often tweak traditional recipes to suit contemporary tastebuds, emphasis of natural foods is still extant. The annual Indigenous Peoples Healthy Cuisine and Innovative Beverage Competition, partly sponsored by the Council of Indigenous Peoples and the Tourism Bureau provides prize money to contestants who creatively use traditional indigenous ingredients in healthy ways. Other similar competitions are held by local governments (such as Kaohsiung City). In Tainan, indigenous people may sell their food at the Cha Ha Mu Aboriginal Park. Such trends are all to promote the wonderful taste of Aboriginal Taiwanese cuisine. During the martial law period indigenous culture was repressed by the government, despite this indigenous cuisine became a part of Taiwan's national identity. The importance of wild greens to aboriginal cuisine is being increasingly appreciated. Wild greens refers to both wild plants found in the forest and to those same plants cultivated in domestic gardens. Rinari, in rural Pingtung County, is an aboriginal restaurant of national significance whose twenty seats are notoriously hard to secure. Rinari primarily serves Rukai cuisine.

The Taiwanese drink less alcohol per capita than neighboring South Koreans and Japanese. This is believed to be because approximately half of Taiwan's population does not possess the necessary gene to successfully metabolize alcohol. During the Japanese colonial period the production of alcoholic beverages was industrialized and in 1922, production of alcohol was monopolized by the colonial authorities. Modern Taiwanese drinking culture and beverage production is still influenced by the Japanese colonial period.

Beer is a popular beverage in Taiwan. Taiwan both imports and produces a wide variety of beers from mass market lagers to niche craft ales. Some of the well developed brands include Long Chuan (龍泉), Le Blé d'Or (金色三麥), Jolly Brewery+Restaurant (卓莉手工醸啤酒泰食餐廳), North Taiwan Brewing (北台灣麥酒) and Taihu Brewing (臺虎精釀).

The first coffee plants on Taiwan were imported by the British to Tainan in 1884 with the first significant small scale cultivation taking place in New Taipei City's Sanxia District. Tainan remains the heart of Taiwanese coffee culture. Production reached a peak in 1941 following the introduction of arabica coffee plants by the Japanese colonial authorities. Domestic production is small but of high quality, imported beans account for the vast majority of coffee sold in Taiwan. In 2016, domestic production was 900 tons while 30,000 tons was imported. By 2020, there were more than 15,000 coffee shops in Taiwan. In 2020, average coffee consumption surpassed average tea consumption for the first time.

Kinmen Kaoliang Liquor is one of the most popular brands of kaoliang liquor in Taiwan. As its name indicates, it is produced on the island of Kinmen. The mainstays of the range are the standard 58 percent and 38 percent alcohol bottlings. Kinmen's kaoliang production traces its roots back to the Chinese Civil War when Chinese nationalist general Hu Lien encouraged Kinmenese farmers to grow sorghum to produce hard liquor as importing alcohol from Taiwan caused financial strain. Kaoliang liquor has become an integral part of Kinmen's economy and plays a significant role in the culture of Kinmen. Yusan Kaoliang Chiew is produced by the Taiwan Tobacco and Liquor Corporation. It is named after the highest mountain in Taiwan, Yushan. One of the most notable products in the range is an "X. O." kaoliang aged for five years in tanks before bottling. Matsu Tunnel 88 Kaoliang Liquor is produced by the Matsu Distillery in Nangan Township, Lienchiang County. The name is derived from the name of an abandoned military tunnel called Tunnel 88 which the distillery took over as storage space for their kaoliang and aged rice wine. All of the distillery's aged kaoliangs are stored in the tunnel for at least five years.

Commercial rum production was introduced into Taiwan along with commercial sugar production during the Japanese colonial period. Rum production continued under the ROC however it was neglected by Taiwan Tobacco and Liquor Corporation which held the national liquor monopoly. The industry diversified after democratization and the de monopolization of the Taiwanese alcoholic beverage industry.

Taiwanese tea is considered among the best in the world and the country has a unique tea culture.

Taiwan has a young but thriving whisky industry buoyed by a massive domestic market for whisky, especially single malt scotch. Taiwan is the only whisky market which drinks more single malt whisky than blended whisky.

Independent winemaking was illegal in Taiwan for a long time due to the monopoly granted to the Taiwan Tobacco and Liquor Corporation. Independent winemakers became legal in 2002 and in 2014, a Taiwanese wine won its first gold medal at an international competition. In 2019, a red wine from Taichung was awarded a gold medal at the 25th Vinalies Internationales in France. Two of the most acclaimed wineries are Domaine Shu Sheng and Weightstone Vineyard Estate & Winery. Although it was once largely lost, Taiwan's indigenous winemaking culture is staging a comeback.

Sake consumption started during the Japanese colonial period. The first sake was made in Taiwan in 1914, the largest contemporary domestic brand is Yuchun produced by the Taiwan Tobacco and Liquor Corporation. A number of smaller producers also exist with an emphasis placed on unique products made with local rice. Taiwan also imports large amounts of sake from Japan. Its proximity and the volume of the trade allows merchants in Taiwan to stock fresh and limited production sake which is not widely available elsewhere outside Japan.

Fine dining in Taiwan is often of a mixed identity. For example, wedding banquets in Taiwan typically feature Japanese sashimi as the first course with traditional Taiwanese and Chinese dishes following. In the 21st century, indigenous ingredients, dishes, and techniques have made their way into high end restaurants. In 2018, La Liste listed 10 restaurants in Taiwan among the world's 1,000 best. The Michelin Guide began reviewing restaurants in Taipei in 2018 and Taichung in 2020. The 2020 Michelin awarded stars to 30 restaurants in Taiwan, four in Taichung and 26 in Taipei. With three stars, the Cantonese restaurant Le Palais is the country's highest rated restaurant. The 2020 list also bestowed the Bib Gourmand on 54 restaurants in Taipei and 21 in Taichung. The expansion of the Michelin Guide to Taiwan increased international recognition for Taiwanese restaurants. In 2023, the Michelin Guide was expanded to Tainan and Kaohsiung. There are significant differences between the fine dining scenes in Taipei and Taichung. In Taichung, an emphasis is placed on ceremony with large tables and private rooms common, a premium is also placed on parking with restaurants having more than 100 parking spaces. This is due in part to Taichung's strong small and medium enterprises as well as a multitude of informal recreational and fraternal organizations. In Taipei, fine dining restaurants and tables are generally smaller with most customers being couples or small groups, in general, service is less formal than in Taichung. In Taipei, there is more international influence in the fine dining scene while Taichung retains a strong affinity with traditional dishes. In the 2010s, fine dining restaurants which more closely followed international trends proliferated in Taichung. Lanshu Chen was particularly important in gaining Taichung international recognition.

Fusion cuisine is very popular in Taiwan. Many Taiwanese dishes are a result of cultural fusion, such as the Taiwanese version of pastel de nata which are a legacy of Portuguese colonialism in neighboring Macao.

Italian cuisine has been popular in Taiwan for a long time, but the country had few authentic Italian restaurants and even fewer Italian chefs until the late 1990s and early 2000s. Due to the financial crisis of 2007–08, a large number of Italians emigrated from Italy to healthier economies. This led to a rapid increase in both the number of Italian restaurants and the number of Italian expats in Taiwan. While most restaurants follow the traditional Italian course style, the meal proportions are influenced by Italian American cuisine. Taiwanese diners have become increasingly passionate and discerning about Italian cuisine. Michael de Prenda was one of the innovators of Italian cuisine in Taiwan, starting multiple restaurants, a market, and a farm.

Pizza is one of the most popular foods in Taiwan. The first pizza restaurant opened in the 1970s and the industry grew rapidly in the 2000s driven by an increasing demand for quality Italian and American style pizza from an affluent younger generation which had spent time abroad and brought back a taste for it.

Historically overseas Chinese from India would travel to Taiwan to learn cooking. Indian restaurants existed in Taiwan, but overall the cuisine was slow to catch on. Indian food became popular in Taiwan in the 2000s. The number of Indian restaurants has grown along with the growth of the Indian and larger South Asian community in Taiwan, however, most customers in Indian restaurants are local with Indian food also being found in university cafeterias and other institutional settings.

Along with the fleeing KMT came White Russian refugees who had sought shelter from the Russian Revolution in China. George Elsner founded the first Russian restaurant, The Café Astoria, in Taiwan in 1949. The Café Astoria was a center of Russian expat life in Taiwan during its early years. Chiang Ching kuo and his Russian wife, Faina Vakhreva, often brought their children with them to eat there. Elsner died stateless in Taiwan.

Nordic haute cuisine is popular in Taiwan's major cities, with restaurants offering both authentic Nordic cuisine and Nordic cuisine adapted to local ingredients and tastes.

The increase in immigration from Hong Kong following the pro democracy protests brought an increased focus on Hong Kong cuisine, along with a fusion between Hong Kong and Taiwan cuisines. Taiwan is considered a safe haven for Hongkongers, with many opening shops and restaurants to serve food they were unable to find in Taiwan, or which they did not feel was up to Hong Kong standards.

Taiwan, in particularly Taipei, is regarded as having some of the best Japanese food outside of Japan. This is due to the legacy of Japanese colonialism as well as ongoing cultural and commercial exchange.

Ramen restaurants in Taiwan often create unique and outlandish ramen dishes including durian, whole giant isopod, crocodile leg, and whole frog.

Burmese and Chinese Burmese restaurants are primarily located in the Little Burma section of Taipei. Chinese Burmese immigration to Taiwan began in the 1950s.

In the decades since the KMT's retreat, these regional dishes have evolved and become part of Taiwanese cuisine. According to Taiwanese chef Fu Pei mei, authentic Chinese culinary traditions were properly preserved in Taiwan. This claim to authenticity, common among Fu's generation, was in part due to the Kuomintang's Chinese nationalist political messaging which extended well beyond cuisine.

Taiwanese cuisine has a global presence. Taiwanese chefs have been extremely successful abroad cooking both Taiwanese and international cuisine. Well known chefs include André Chiang.

Along with its semiconductor industry, Taiwan's cuisine is one of its most prominent aspects internationally. In 2010, Taiwan's Ministry of Economic Affairs launched a £20 million culinary diplomacy campaign called "All in Good Taste: Savor the Flavors of Taiwan". It promoted Taiwanese venues internationally, sponsored chefs, hosted food festivals and competitions, and emphasized elements such as bubble tea, oyster omelette, and Taiwan's night markets. Since 2010, the ministry has sent chefs abroad to promote Taiwanese cuisine.

State banquets have formed an important part of Taiwanese diplomacy since the era of one party rule by the KMT. General Tso's chicken was invented by the KMT's head chef Peng Chang kuei in the 1950s to feed visiting American military dignitaries. The banquets are meant to present a message to guests and as such dishes and styles have varied over the years under different administrations. There has been an increasing emphasis on serving Taiwanese ingredients cooked in a distinctly Taiwanese style.

Taiwanese immigrant restaurateurs were largely responsible for the shift of American Chinese food from Cantonese focused cuisine to diverse cuisine featuring dishes from many regions in China. The immigration of Taiwanese chefs to the United States began in the 1950s. At the time, cooks in Taiwan were trained in traditional Chinese regional cooking as this fit the chosen identity of the KMT. Taiwanese restaurateurs changed the food landscape of many American cities, including New York City, and pioneered innovations such as picture menus and food delivery. Many of the immigrants to the United States during this period had been born in mainland China and fled to Taiwan with the retreating KMT, particularly former residents of the Dachen Islands who had been evacuated in 1955. Traditionally, Taiwanese food has been hard to differentiate from Chinese and Japanese food abroad, since many Taiwanese chefs cooked simplified or westernized versions of traditional Taiwanese, Japanese, or Chinese dishes. In 2018, there was a rapid growth in the number of authentic Taiwanese restaurants in New York City and across the country, which coincided with an increased interest in regional Chinese food and in Taiwan itself. Some object to the politically fraught inclusion of Taiwanese cuisine under the banner of regional Chinese food and point out that it is inaccurate. Taiwanese American cuisine is emerging as a full cuisine in its own right. Myers + Chang in Boston was one of the first restaurants to explicitly describe their food as such. In 2018, James Beard Award winning chef Stephanie Izard opened a Taiwanese snack/dessert shop in Chicago. Taiwanese cuisine has a significant presence in the San Francisco Bay Area. Increasing interest in authentic Taiwanese food is coming from ex pats and second generation Taiwanese Americans. A Taiwanese American cookbook, First Generation, was published by Frankie Gaw in 2022. In 2023, Cathy Erway published Win Son Presents: A Taiwanese American Cookbook. Kato by Chef Jon Yao is a Michelin starred restaurant serving Taiwanese food in Los Angeles.

Historically, culinary education was informal with apprentices learning from a master for many years before they practice the craft on their own. The first college level course in cooking was implemented in 1986 at Danshui Technical College. In 2023, the TCE was held at the Taipei World Trade Center the and featured four areas "Gourmet Tastes, Culinary Exploration, Government Pavilion, and Exotic Foods."