Японские слова китайского происхождения

Japanese words of Chinese origin
Sino Japanese vocabulary, also known as , is a subset of Japanese vocabulary that originated in Chinese or was created from elements borrowed from Chinese. Some grammatical structures and sentence patterns can also be identified as Sino Japanese. Kango is one of three broad categories into which the Japanese vocabulary is divided. The others are native Japanese vocabulary (yamato kotoba) and borrowings from other, mainly Western languages (gairaigo). It has been estimated that about 60% of the words contained in modern Japanese dictionaries are kango, and that about 18–20% of words used in common speech are kango. The usage of such kango words also increases in formal or literary contexts, and in expressions of abstract or complex ideas. is rendered as hwayak in Korean, and as kayaku in Japanese. At the time of their first contact, the existing Japanese language had no writing system, while the Chinese had a written language and a great deal of academic and scientific information, providing new concepts along with Chinese words to express them. Chinese became the language of science, learning, religion and government. The earliest written language to be used in Japan was literary Chinese, which has come to be called kanbun in this context. The kanbun writing system essentially required every literate Japanese to be competent in written Chinese, although it is unlikely that many Japanese people were then fluent in spoken Chinese. Chinese pronunciation was approximated in words borrowed from Chinese into Japanese; this Sino Japanese vocabulary is still an important component of the Japanese language, and may be compared to words of Latin or Greek origin in English. Chinese borrowings also significantly influenced Japanese phonology, leading to many new developments such as closed syllables (CV(N), not just CV) and length becoming a phonetic feature with the development of both long vowels and long consonants. (See Early Middle Japanese: Phonological developments for details.)

Sino Japanese words are almost exclusively nouns, of which many are verbal nouns or adjectival nouns, meaning that they can act as verbs or adjectives. Verbal nouns can be used as verbs by appending (する) (e. g. (勉強する)), while an adjectival noun uses (〜な) instead of (〜の) (usual for nouns) when acting attributively. In Japanese, verbs and adjectives (that is, inflecting adjectives) are closed classes, and despite the large number of borrowings from Chinese, virtually none of these became inflecting verbs or adjectives, instead being conjugated periphrastically as above. In addition to the basic verbal noun + suru form, verbal nouns with a single character root often experienced sound changes, such as (〜する) → (〜ずる) → (〜じる), as in (禁じる), and some cases where the stem underwent a sound change, as in (達する), from (達).

The term kango is usually identified with "sound reading"; 音読み; on'yomi, a system of pronouncing Chinese characters in a way that at one point approximated the original Chinese. On'yomi is also known as the 'Sino Japanese reading', and is opposed to "reading by meaning"; 訓読み; kun'yomi under which Chinese characters are assigned to, and read as, native Japanese vocabulary. However, there are cases where the distinction between on'yomi and kun'yomi does not correspond to etymological origin. Chinese characters created in Japan, called [[Kanji#Kokuji, normally only have kun'yomi, but some kokuji do have on'yomi. One such character is (as in hataraku, "to work"), which was given the on'yomi dō (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component, ) when used in compounds with other characters, e. g. in rōdō ("labor"). Similarly, the character ("gland") has the on'yomi sen (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component, sen "spring, fountain"), e. g. in hentōsen "tonsils"; it was intentionally created as a kango and does not have a kun'yomi at all. Although not originating in Chinese, both of these are regarded as 'Sino Japanese'. By the same token, that a word is the kun'yomi of a kanji is not a guarantee that the word is native to Japanese. There are a few Japanese words that, although they appear to have originated in borrowings from Chinese, have such a long history in the Japanese language that they are regarded as native and are thus treated as kun'yomi, e. g., uma "horse" and ume. These words are not regarded as belonging to the Sino Japanese vocabulary.

On'yomi were originally used in ondoku (音読 "sound reading"), the Japanese system for reading aloud texts in the Middle Chinese (MC) language. A huge number of loanwords entered the Japanese language from Middle Chinese, intermediated by these conventionalized pronunciations. There are different types of on'yomi for Sino Japanese vocabulary, depending mainly on the time period of borrowing. Go on (呉音 "Wu sound") readings represent the first major wave of Chinese borrowing in the 5th and 6th centuries, coinciding with the introduction of Buddhism in Japan. It is not agreed whether Go on pronunciations are clearly derived from a particular dialect of Middle Chinese. Buddhist teachings along with the Chinese language were largely imported through the Korean peninsula, and it is unclear to what extent this fact influenced the Go on pronunciations. Certain genres of modern vocabulary largely use Go on readings, especially words related to Buddhism and law. Kan on (漢音 "Han sound") readings were introduced in the 7th through 9th centuries during the Tang dynasty, and are based on the central Chang'an pronunciation of Middle Chinese. While there was a large scale effort to replace Go on readings with Kan on readings when pronouncing Chinese texts in Japan, this effort did not extend to changing the pronunciation of borrowed words that were already used in Japanese. Massive borrowing of Chinese loanwords continued during this period, and these new borrowings reflected the new Kan on readings. Today, Kan on readings are the most commonly encountered type of on'yomi. Kan'yō on (慣用音 "customary sound") readings are not considered to follow the regular patterns for adapting either Go on or Kan on readings, but are commonly encountered in existing Sino Japanese words. In some cases, the Kan'yō on reading is in fact a regular development of the original Go or Kan on'yomi in a particular environment. For example, 拉 (MC lop) has the Kan'yō on reading /raQ/ (or /ra/) in all Sino Japanese words, which is the regular development of earlier /rap(u)/ before a voiceless obstruent. A common irregularity for Kan'yō on is an unexpected voicing value for an initial obstruent. For example, 斬 (MC tʂɛmX) is read in all Sino Japanese words as /zaN/ rather than the expected Kan on reading /saN/. Tō on/Sō on (唐音 "Tang sound" or 宋音 "Song sound") readings were introduced mostly from the 12th century onward, during and after the Song dynasty. "Tang" was in this context used to mean "Chinese" (i. e. "real Chinese pronunciation"), with no intended connection to the earlier Tang Dynasty. > "jū". Note that in some compounds, the word was directly borrowed as /zip / > "jip "; hence "jippun" 'ten minutes' (or "juppun", influenced by "jū"), rather than "*jūfun". More complex is the archaic dento labial nasal sound: The character 武 ('strife, martial arts') was pronounced "mvu" in Late Middle Chinese. The sound is approximated in the Japanese pronunciations "bu" and "mu". However, that sound no longer exists in most modern Chinese dialects, except Southern Min "bú", and the character 武 is pronounced "wǔ" in Mandarin, in Cantonese, "vu" in Hakka, Shanghainese, and Vietnamese. The modern Mandarin initial "r" usually corresponds to "ny" or "ni" in Japanese. At the time of borrowing, characters such as 人 ('person') and 日 ('day'), which have an initial "r" sound in modern Mandarin, began with a palatal nasal consonant closely approximating French and Italian gn and Spanish ñ. (This distinction is still preserved in some Chinese varieties, such as Hakka and Shanghainese, as well as Vietnamese.) Thus Mandarin Rìběn (日本, Japan) corresponds to Japanese Nippon. This is also why the character 人, pronounced in Middle Chinese, is pronounced "nin" in some contexts, as in , and "jin" in others, such as — approximating its more modern pronunciation. In Wu dialects, including Shanghainese, 人 ('person') and 二 ('two') are still pronounced "nin" and "ni", respectively. In Southern Min (especially Zhangzhou accent), 人 is "jîn" (literary pronunciation) which is practically identical to Japanese On'yomi. In Middle Chinese, 五 ('five') and similar characters were pronounced with a velar nasal consonant, "ng" ([ŋ]), as its initial. This is no longer true in modern Mandarin, but it remains the case in other Chinese dialects such as Cantonese and Shanghainese. Japanese approximates the Middle Chinese */ng/ with "g" or "go"; thus 五 becomes "go". In Southern Min, it is pronounced /gɔ/ (colloquial) or /ŋɔ/ (literary) while in the Fuzhou dialect it is pronounced "ngu". In addition, some Japanese dialects have [ŋ] for medial g.
The Mandarin "hu" sound (as in "huá" or "huī") does not exist in Japanese and is usually omitted, whereas the Mandarin "l" sound becomes "r" in Japanese. Thus, Mandarin Huángbò (黄檗) corresponds to Japanese Ōbaku, and Rúlái (如来) and lamian (拉麵) to Nyorai and ramen respectively. Mandarin "h", usually from Middle Chinese or will often correspond to "k" or "g" in Japanese, as Old Japanese lacked velar fricatives: Modern Japanese is derived from Old Japanese , which descended in most cases from a Proto Japonic */p/; however, this lack of velar fricatives in Old Japanese helps preserve the voiced voiceless contrast between Middle Chinese and that Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean and Vietnamese has lost. Mandarin "z" will often correspond to Japanese "j"; these are also changes in Chinese. Thus, Mandarin hànzì (漢字) corresponds to Japanese kanji, hànwén (漢文, Chinese written language) to kanbun, and zuìhòu (最後 'last') to saigo.