Введение
Философия, касающаяся себя, мотивации или поведения
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
Австралийская группа
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
Эгоизм – это философия, исследующая роль самого себя, или эго, как мотивации и цели собственных действий. Различные теории эгоизма охватывают широкий спектр различных идей и обычно подразделяются на дескриптивные (описательные) или нормативные формы. То есть, они могут быть направлены либо на описание того, что люди действуют в собственных интересах, либо на предписание того, как они должны действовать. Другие определения эгоизма вместо этого подчеркивают действие в соответствии со своей волей, а не со своими интересами, и утверждают, что это более точное понимание эгоизма. В «Новой католической энциклопедии» говорится об эгоизме, что он «включает в себя определенные основополагающие истины: человеку естественно любить себя; более того, он должен это делать, поскольку каждый в конечном итоге несет ответственность за себя; удовольствие, развитие своих способностей и приобретение власти обычно желательны». Моральное осуждение эгоистичных интересов является распространенным объектом критики в эгоистической философии, при этом подобные суждения рассматриваются как средство контроля и результат властных отношений. Эгоизм также может отвергать возможность получения понимания внутренней мотивации извне, например, из психологии или социологии. Позиция о том, что люди склонны действовать в своих собственных интересах, называется эгоизмом по умолчанию, в то время как психологический эгоизм утверждает, что все мотивации коренятся в эгоистичной психике. В своей сильной форме это означает, что даже кажущиеся альтруистическими действия лишь маскируют эгоистичные побуждения. В слабой форме утверждается, что даже если альтруистическая мотивация возможна, волевое действие неизбежно становится эгоистичным, поскольку служит собственной воле. Кроме того, теория эгоистичного гена утверждает, что эгоистичные интересы генетической информации обуславливают человеческое поведение. Нормативный эгоизм, как в случае Штирнера, не обязательно отвергает, что некоторые модели поведения должны цениться выше других, например, утверждение Штирнера о том, что нестесненность и автономия должны быть наиболее ценными. Однако противоположные теории могут столь же легко отдавать предпочтение эгоистическому доминированию над другими. Ницше, критикуя широко распространенное моральное отвращение к эгоистичным действиям, стремится освободить высших людей от веры в то, что эта мораль им полезна. Он отвергает христианскую и кантовскую этику как замаскированный эгоизм рабской морали. В аристократической оценке превосходство и добродетель являются формой превосходства над обычными массами, которую священническая оценка, вызванная чувством обиды, стремится перевернуть, где бессильные и жалкие становятся моральным идеалом. Поэтому считается, что поддержка неэгоистичных действий проистекает из желания отвергнуть превосходство других. Он считает, что все нормативные системы, действующие в роли, часто ассоциируемой с моралью, благоприятствуют интересам одних людей, часто, хотя и не обязательно, за счет других. Тем не менее, Ницше также утверждает в той же книге, что нет «действующего субъекта» каких-либо действий, будь они эгоистичными или нет: «нет ‘существа’ за действием, осуществлением, становлением; ‘действующий субъект’ – это всего лишь вымысел, добавленный к действию – действие – это все» (§13).
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
В своей книге «К генеалогии морали» Фридрих Ницше прослеживает происхождение морали господ и рабов до фундаментальных эгоистичных ценностных суждений. В аристократической оценке превосходство и добродетель являются формой превосходства над обычными массами, которую священническая оценка, вызванная чувством обиды, стремится перевернуть, где бессильные и жалкие становятся моральным идеалом. Поэтому считается, что поддержка неэгоистичных действий проистекает из желания отвергнуть превосходство других. Он считает, что все нормативные системы, которые действуют в роли, часто связанной с моралью, благоприятствуют интересам одних людей, часто, хотя и не обязательно, за счет других. Тем не менее, Ницше также заявляет в той же книге, что нет «действующего субъекта» каких-либо действий, будь они эгоистичными или нет: «за действием, осуществлением, становлением нет ‘существа’; ‘действующий субъект’ – это всего лишь вымысел, добавленный к действию – действие – это все» (§13).
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
Джонас Монте из Университета Бригама Янга утверждает, что Ницше сомневался в самом существовании «Я», которое он определил как «сознательное Эго, командующее психическими состояниями». Другие теоретики:
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
Джереми Бентам, популяризировавший выражение «Делай, что хочешь»
Артур Десмонд как Рагнар Редбард (возможно, недоказано)
Томас Гоббс, которому приписывают раннее обоснование психологического эгоизма
Джон Генри Маккей, британский немецкий эгоист-анархист
Бернард де Мандевиль, чей материализм ретроспективно описывается как форма эгоизма
Фридрих Ницше, чья концепция воли к власти имеет как дескриптивные, так и нормативные интерпретации
Бенджамин Такер, американский эгоист-анархист
Джеймс Л. Уокер, который самостоятельно сформулировал эгоистическую философию, прежде чем открыть для себя работы Штирнера
Джон Фаулз, британский писатель, изложивший индивидуалистическую философию в своей книге «Аристос».
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
Отношение к альтруизму
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
В 1851 году французский философ Огюст Конт ввел термин альтруизм (; , от латинского alteri ‘другие’) как антоним эгоизма. В этом смысле альтруизм определял позицию Конта о том, что вся забота о себе должна быть заменена заботой только о других. Конт утверждает, что существует только две человеческие мотивации: эгоистическая и альтруистическая, и что их нельзя согласовать; то есть, одна всегда должна преобладать над другой. Для Конта полное подчинение себя альтруизму является необходимым условием как социального, так и личного блага. В отношении биологического альтруизма Стэнфордская философская энциклопедия утверждает: «Вопреки распространенному мнению, эволюционный подход к человеческому поведению не подразумевает, что люди, вероятно, мотивированы только собственными интересами. Один из способов, с помощью которого «эгоистичные гены» могут увеличить свое будущее представительство, – это заставить людей быть бескорыстными в психологическом смысле». Однако популярное описание Штирнера как морального нигилиста может не отражать определенные нюансы его этического мышления. Стэнфордская философская энциклопедия утверждает: «Штирнер явно привержен не нигилистическому взгляду на то, что определенные виды характера и модели поведения (а именно автономные личности и действия) должны цениться превыше всего остального. Его концепция морали в этом отношении узка, и его отвержение законности моральных претензий не следует путать с отрицанием уместности всех нормативных или этических суждений». Аналогичным образом, как нормативные, так и дескриптивные теории эгоизма получили дальнейшее развитие в рамках русского нигилизма, вскоре дав начало рациональному эгоизму. Нигилистические философы Дмитрий Писарев и Николай Чернышевский оказали в этом отношении значительное влияние, сочетая такие формы эгоизма с жестким детерминизмом. Философия Макса Штирнера решительно отвергает современность и резко критикует растущий догматизм и угнетающие социальные институты, которые ее воплощают. Чтобы ее превзойти, эгоистические принципы поддерживаются как необходимый шаг вперед за пределы современного мира. После посмертного принятия анархистским движением это стало основой для эгоистического анархизма. Вариант теории собственности Штирнера также диалектичен, где концепция собственности – это лишь личное различие между тем, что является чьей-либо собственностью, а что нет. Следовательно, именно осуществление контроля над собственностью составляет неабстрактное владение ею.
Philosophy concerning self regarding motivations or behaviour
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
the Australian band
Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into descriptive or normative forms. That is, they may be interested in either describing that people do act in self interest or prescribing that they should. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's will rather than one's self interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable." The moral censure of self interest is a common subject of critique in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from psychology or sociology,
The position that people tend to act in their own self interest is called default egoism, whereas psychological egoism is the position that all motivations are rooted in an ultimately self serving psyche. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly altruistic actions are only disguised as such and are always self serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own will. Furthermore, selfish gene theory holds that it is the self interest of genetic information that conditions human behaviour. Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued. Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others. Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects Christian and Kantian ethics as merely the disguised egoism of slave morality.|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
In his On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of master–slave morality to fundamentally egoistic value judgments. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in ressentiment of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with morality favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others. Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states in the same book that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not:
quote frame| there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything. (§13)|author=Friedrich Nietzsche|source=On the Genealogy of Morals
Jonas Monte of Brigham Young University argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states". Other theoreticians
Jeremy Bentham, who popularized the expression "Do what thou wilt"
Arthur Desmond as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)
Thomas Hobbes, who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism
John Henry Mackay, a British German egoist anarchist
Bernard de Mandeville, whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism
Friedrich Nietzsche, whose concept of will to power has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations
Benjamin Tucker, an American egoist anarchist
James L. Walker, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner
John Fowles, British writer who laid out an individualist philosophy in his book The Aristos. Relation to altruism
In 1851, French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term altruism (; , from Latin alteri 'others') as an antonym for egoism. In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self regard must be replaced with only the regard for others. Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit. On biological altruism, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be non selfish, in the psychological sense." The popular description of Stirner as a moral nihilist, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement." Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under Russian nihilism, shortly giving birth to rational egoism. Nihilist philosophers Dmitry Pisarev and Nikolay Chernyshevsky were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with hard determinism. Max Stirner's philosophy strongly rejects modernity and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world. When posthumously adopted by the anarchist movement, this became the foundation for egoist anarchism. Stirner's variant of property theory is similarly dialectical, where the concept of ownership is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.
Революционная политика
Философ-эгоист Николай Гаврилович Чернышевский был главной интеллектуальной движущей силой революционного движения в России в период с 1860 по 1917 год, которое привело к убийству царя Александра II за восемь лет до его смерти в 1889 году. Дмитрий Писарев оказывал сходное радикальное влияние на движение, хотя лично не призывал к политической революции.
Egoist philosopher Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevskii was the dominant intellectual figure behind the 1860–1917 revolutionary movement in Russia, which resulted in the assassination of Tsar Alexander II eight years before his death in 1889. Dmitry Pisarev was a similarly radical influence within the movement, though he did not personally advocate political revolution.