Язык хайда: на грани исчезновения

Endangered language spoken in Canada and Alaska

Haida '/h//aɪ//d//ə/ (X̱aat Kíl, X̱aadas Kíl, X̱aayda Kil, Xaad kil) is the language of the Haida people, spoken in the Haida Gwaii archipelago off the coast of Canada and on Prince of Wales Island in Alaska. An endangered language, Haida currently has 24 native speakers, though revitalization efforts are underway. At the time of the European arrival at Haida Gwaii in 1774, it is estimated that Haida speakers numbered about 15,000. Epidemics soon led to a drastic reduction in the Haida population, which became limited to three villages: Masset, Skidegate, and Hydaburg. Positive attitudes towards assimilation combined with the ban on speaking Haida in residential schools led to a sharp decline in the use of the Haida language among the Haida people, and today almost all ethnic Haida use English to communicate. Classification of the Haida language is a matter of controversy, with some linguists placing it in the Na Dené language family and others arguing that it is a language isolate. Haida itself is split between Northern and Southern dialects, which differ primarily in phonology. The Northern Haida dialects have developed pharyngeal consonants, typologically uncommon sounds which are also found in some of the nearby Salishan and Wakashan languages. The Haida sound system includes ejective consonants, glottalized sonorants, contrastive vowel length, and phonemic tone. The nature of tone differs between the dialects, and in Alaskan Haida it is primarily a pitch accent system. Syllabic laterals appear in all dialects of Haida, but are only phonemic in Skidegate Haida. Extra vowels which are not present in Haida words occur in nonsense words in Haida songs. There are a number of systems for writing Haida using the Latin alphabet, each of which represents the sounds of Haida differently. While in Haida nouns and verbs behave as clear word classes, adjectives form a subclass of verbs. Haida has only a few adpositions. Indo European type adjectives translate into verbs in Haida, for example 'láa "(to be) good", and English prepositional phrases are usually expressed with Haida "relational nouns", for instance Alaskan Haida dítkw 'side facing away from the beach, towards the woods'. Haida verbs are marked for tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality, and person is marked by pronouns that are cliticized to the verb. Haida also has hundreds of classifiers. Haida has the rare direct inverse verbal alignment where instead of nominal cases, it is marked whether the grammatical subject and object follow or not a hierarchy between persons and noun classes. Haida also has obligatory possession, where certain types of nouns cannot stand alone and require a possessor.

The first documented contact between the Haida and Europeans was in 1772, on Juan Pérez's exploratory voyage. At this time Haidas inhabited the Haida Gwaii, Dall Island, and Prince of Wales Island. The next epidemic came in 1862, causing the population to drop to 1,658. In the 1830s a pidgin trade language based on Haida, known as Haida Jargon, was used in the islands by speakers of English, Haida, Coast Tsimshian, and Heiltsuk. The Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858 led to a boom in the town of Victoria, and Southern Haida began traveling there annually, mainly for the purpose of selling their women. For this the Haida used Chinook Jargon. For instance, Skidegate Haida were reported as dressing in the European fashion in 1866, while Northern Haida "were still wearing bearskins and blankets ten years later." The new village was greatly successful, and throughout the Northwest coast the attitude spread that abandoning tradition would pave the way for a better life. The Haida themselves invited missionaries to their community, the first arriving in 1876. The book of Psalms as well as 3 Gospels and Acts from the New Testament would also be translated into Haida. These schools strictly enforced a ban on the use of native languages, and played a major role in the decimation of native Northwest Coast languages. As of 2003, most speakers of Haida are between 70 and 80 years of age, though they speak a "considerably simplified" form of Haida, and comprehension of the language is mostly limited to persons above the age of 50. The language is rarely used even among the remaining speakers and comprehenders. Haida classes are available in many Haida communities and can be taken at the University of Alaska Southeast in Juneau, Ketchikan, and Hydaburg. A Skidegate Haida language app is available for iPhone, based on a "bilingual dictionary and phrase collection words and phrases archived at the online Aboriginal language database FirstVoices. com." In 2017 Kingulliit Productions was working on the first feature film to be acted entirely in Haida; the actors had to be trained to pronounce the lines correctly. The film, entitled SGaawaay K’uuna ("Edge of the Knife"), was due to be released in the United Kingdom in April 2019.

Franz Boas first suggested that Haida might be genetically related to the Tlingit language in 1894, and linguist Edward Sapir included Haida in the Na Dené language family in 1915. Today, however, many linguists regard Haida as a language isolate. This theory is not universally accepted; for example, Enrico (2004) argues that Haida does in fact belong to the Na Dené family, though early loanwords make the evidence problematic.

Haida has a major dialectal division between Northern and Southern dialects. They are an areal feature of some languages in a small portion of Northwest America, in the Salishan and Wakashan languages as well as Haida. For some speakers, occurs only at the beginning of syllables, while does not occur there, making them allophones of the same phoneme. In Northern Haida (Masset Haida and Alaskan Haida), historically developed into , with then being reintroduced by occasional borrowings from Southern Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, and Chinook jargon. The actual realization of the pharyngeal consonants varies with dialect. In Masset Haida they are pharyngeal fricatives, , whereas in the variety of Alaskan Haida spoken in Hydaburg they have been described as an epiglottal trill and a trilled epiglottal affricate or an epiglottal stop respectively. In Alaskan Haida, all velar, uvular, and epiglottal consonants, as well as for some speakers, have rounded variants resulting from coalescence of clusters with Alaskan Haida also shows simplification of to when preceding an alveolar or postalveolar obstruent, and of to
In Skidegate Haida, has allophone in syllable final position.

Haida clauses are verb final. SOV word order is always possible, while OSV may also be used when the subject is more 'potent' than the object; thus Haida is a direct–inverse language. For example, a human is more potent than a horse, which is more potent than a wagon. The following groups are listed in descending order of potency: "known single adult free humans; non adult and/or enslaved and/or unknown and/or grouped humans; non human higher animals; inanimates and lower organisms (fish and lower)." Pronouns are placed adjacent to the verb and cliticized to it. Their internal order is object–subject, or in causatives object causee subject, for example Bill dii dalang squdang hal gan Bill me you punch direct. that PA "You told Bill to punch me / Bill told you to punch me". Potency is also relevant for pronoun ordering when one pronoun is less potent, for example the indefinite pronoun ga in 'laa ga 7isda gan = ga 'la 7isda gan 'she took some.' Sentences with nang "someone" or tl' "some people" as the subject may be translated as passive sentences in English, for example láa tl' ḵínggan "he was seen (by more than one person)", literally "some people saw him". Clitic pronouns are used as complements of verbs, as inalienable possessives, with quantifiers, and in Skidegate Haida as the objects of some postpositions. Verbs taking agentive subjects are most common in the lexicon (about 69%), followed by those taking objective subjects (29%) and those that may take either (2%). Intransitive verbs of inherent states (e. g. "be old") take an objective subject, while most transitive verbs take agentive subjects (but cf. verbs like gu'laa "like"). With some verbs that may take either, there may be a semantic difference involved, e. g. gwaawa (Masset) which means "refuse" with agentive subject but not want with objective subject. Enrico (2003) argues that the agentive case indicates planning; thus Haida is essentially an active–stative language, though subject case is also variable in some transitive verbs. Independent pronouns are used instead of clitic pronouns when modified by a clitic, so for example hal ngíishlgan "he got well" becomes l'áa háns ngíishlgan "he also got well" when the clitic háns 'also, too' is added. Focus and less commonly topic are marked with the clitic uu~ huu, placed after a sentence initial constituent, e. g. Bill uu Mary qing gan (Skidegate) "Bill saw Mary" / "Mary saw Bill", 7ahl7aaniis uu "qaagaa" hin. uu 'la kya. a gaa n "That one, he was called 'qaagaa. Question words always take this enclitic, for example guusuu "what? ", tláanuu "where? ", gíisanduu "when?". There are multiple ways that Haida marks possession. Haida has obligatory possession, a common feature of native North American languages where certain nouns (in Haida, family relationship, body part, and "relational" nouns) must occur with a possessor and cannot stand alone. For example, one can say díi aw "my mother" but not *aw, though one may use a circumlocution like nang awáa 'one who is a mother'. These nouns are possessed using the bound objective pronouns, which all precede the noun except (a)ng 'one's own'. Included in the class of obligatorily possessed nouns are so called "relational nouns" and postpositions, which generally translate to prepositions or prepositional phrases in English and refer to temporal and spatial relations. Relational nouns take some special third person possessive pronouns ('láa, 'wáa, tl'áa rather than hal, ahljíi, tl'), e. g. 'wáa ḵáahlii "in(side) it" (lit. "its interior"). An alternate construction when the possessor is a pronoun is to place an independent objective pronoun after the possessed noun, the latter in definite form, e. g. náay díinaa "my house". The independent objective pronouns also occur by themselves with possessive force, e. g. díinaa "mine".

Kíl 'láa Hello/ goodbye Sán uu dáng G̱íidang How do you do? Díi 'láagang I'm fineHaw'áa Thank you Dáng díi Ḵuyáadang I love you Sán uu dáng kya'áang? What's your name? hín díi kya'áang My name is Háws dáng díi Ḵíngsaang I'll see you againHingáan an hl gu Ḵuyáat 'uu Just love one anotherGíistgaay gúust uu dáng Ḵ'wáalaagang? Whose moiety do you belong to?

Enrico, John. 2003. Haida Syntax. (2 volumes). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Enrico, John. 2005. Haida Dictionary: Skidegate, Masset, and Alaskan Dialects. (2 volumes). Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center; Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute. Fisher, Robin. 1992. "Contact and Conflict: Indian European Relations in British Columbia, 1774–1890." UBC Press. Greenberg, J. H. 1987a. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Greenberg, J. H. 1987b. "The Na Dene Problem". In Greenberg (1987a), pp. 321–330. Harrison, Charles. 1925. "Ancient Warriors of the North Pacific; The Haidas, Their Laws, Customs and Legends." London, H. F. & G. Witherby. Pinnow. H J. 1985. Das Haida als Na Dene Sprache. (Abhandlungen der völkerkundlichen Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Hefte 43–46.) Nortorf, Germany: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. Pinnow. H J. 2006a. Die Na Dene Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg Klassifikation. / The Na Déné Languages in Light of Greenberg's Classification. Zweite erweiterte Auflage / Second revised edition. Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert. Pinnow. H J. 2006b. Sprachhistorische Untersuchung zur Stellung des Haida als Na Dene Sprache. (Unveränderte Neuausgabe aus INDIANA 10, Gedenkschrift Gerdt Kutscher. Teil 2. Berlin 1985. Mit einem Anhang = Die Na Dene Sprachen im Verhältnis zum Tibeto Chinesischen.) Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert. Swanton, John R. 1905. Haida Texts and Myths. Skidegate dialect. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 29.) Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. Swanton, John R. 1908. Haida Texts. Masset Dialect. (Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 10, part 2.) Leiden: E. J. Brill.