Буддизм в Мьянме: История и практики

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Buddhism , specifically Theravāda Buddhism , is the official and state religion of Myanmar since 1961, and practiced by nearly 90% of the population. It is the most religious Buddhist country in terms of the proportion of monks in the population and proportion of income spent on religion. Adherents are most likely found among the dominant Bamar people, Shan, Rakhine, Mon, Karen, and Chinese who are well integrated into Burmese society. Monks, collectively known as the sangha (community), are venerated members of Burmese society. Among many ethnic groups in Myanmar, including the Bamar and Shan, Theravada Buddhism is practiced in conjunction with the worship of nats, which are spirits who can intercede in worldly affairs. Regarding the practice of Buddhism, two popular practices stand out: merit making and vipassanā meditation. There is also the less popular weizza path. Merit making is the most common path undertaken by Burmese Buddhists. This path involves the observance of the Five precepts and accumulation of good merit through charity (dana, often to monks) and good deeds to obtain a favorable rebirth. The meditation path, which has gained ground since the early 1900s, is a form of Buddhist meditation which is seen as leading to awakening and can involve intense meditation retreats. The weizza path is an esoteric system of occult practices (such as recitation of spells, samatha and alchemy) believed to lead to life as a weizza ( ), a semi immortal and supernatural being who awaits the appearance of the future Buddha, Maitreya (Arimeitaya).

The early history of Buddhism in Burma is hard to decipher. Pali historical chronicles state that Ashoka sent two bhikkhus, Sona and Uttara, to Suvaṇṇabhūmi ("The Golden Land") around 228 BCE with other monks and sacred texts as part of his effort to spread Buddhism. The area has been recognized as being somewhere in ancient Southeast Asia, possibly in Thaton in lower Burma or Nakon Pathom in Thailand. However, this is uncertain. An Andhra Ikshvaku inscription from about the 3rd century CE refers to the conversion of the Kiratas (Cilatas) to Buddhism. These may have been the Mon Khmer speaking peoples of ancient Arakan and Lower Burma (i. e. the Pyu states and Mon kingdoms). 3rd century Chinese texts speak of a "Kingdom of Liu Yang," where people worshiped the Buddha, and there were "several thousand sramanas". This kingdom has been located in central Burma. By the 4th century, most of Pyu had become predominantly Buddhist, though archaeological finds prove that their pre Buddhist practices also remained firmly entrenched in the following centuries. According to the excavated texts, as well as the Chinese records, the predominant religion of the Pyu was Theravāda Buddhism. Peter Skilling concludes that there is firm epigraphical evidence for the dominant presence of Theravāda in the Pyu Kingdom of Sriksetra and the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati, "from about the 5th century CE onwards", though he adds that evidence shows that Mahāyāna was also present. The epigraphical evidence comes from Pali inscriptions which have been found in these areas. They use a variant of the South Indian Pallava script. Indeed, the oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli language come from Pyu city state of Sri Ksetra. The text, which is dated from the mid 5th to mid 6th century, is written on solid gold plaques. The similarity of the script used in these plates with that of the Andhra Kuntala Pallava region indicates that Theravada in Burma first arrived from this part of South India. According to Skilling the Pyu and Mon realms "were flourishing centres of Buddhist culture in their own right, on an equal footing with contemporary centres like Anuradhapura." From the 8th to the 12th centuries Indian Buddhist traditions increasingly spread to Southeast Asia via the Bay of Bengal trade network. Because of this, before the 12th century, the areas of Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia were influenced by the Buddhist traditions of India, some of which included the teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism and the use of the Sanskrit language. In the 7th century, Yijing noted in his travels that in Southeast Asia, all major sects of Indian Buddhism flourished. Prominent Mahayana figures such as Avalokiteśvara, Tara, Vaiśravaṇa, and Hayagriva, were included in Pyu (and later Bagan) iconography. Brahmanical deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Garuda and Lakshmi have been found, especially in Lower Burma. The Bamar adoption of Buddhism accelerated in the 11th century during the reign of king Anawrahta (Pali: Aniruddha, 1044–1077) who transformed the Bagan Kingdom into a major power in the region through the conquest of the Irrawaddy river valley, which included the Mon city of Thaton. During his reign, Mon Buddhist culture, architecture and writing came to be largely assimilated into the Bamar culture. Though later historical chronicles (like the Sāsanavaṃsa) state that Anawrahta conquered Thaton in order to obtain the Buddhist scriptures and that a "pure Theravada Buddhism" was established during his reign, it is likely that Theravada was known in Bagan before the 11th century. Furthermore, Bagan Theravāda was never truly "pure" as it included local animist rites, Naga worship and Brahmanical rites associated with Vishnu officiated by Brahmin priests. Anawrahta implemented a series of religious reforms throughout his kingdom, attempting to weaken the power of the Tantric Mahayana Ari monks (also called "Samanakuttakas") and their unorthodox ways. Burmese historical chronicles state that Anawrahta was converted by a Mon bhikkhu, Shin Arahan, to Theravāda Buddhism. The king may have been worried about the influence of the forest dwelling Ari Buddhist monks and sought a way to subvert their power. The Ari monks, who ate evening meals, drank liquor, and presided over animal sacrifices and sexual rites, were considered heretical by the more orthodox Theravāda circles of monks like Shin Arahan. Anawrahta banished many Ari priests who refused to conform and many of them fled to Popa Hill and the Shan Hills. Anawrahta also invited Theravāda scholars from the Mon lands, Sri Lanka and India to Bagan. Their scholarship helped revitalize a more orthodox form of Theravāda Buddhism, with a focus on Pali learning and Abhidhamma philosophy. Anawrahta is also known as a great temple builder. Some of his main achievements include the Shwezigon Pagoda and the Shwesandaw Pagoda. He allowed and even promoted the worship of the traditional Burmese nat spirits and allowed their worship in Buddhist temples and pagodas, presumably as a way to attract and appease the population and gradually have them accept the new Buddhist religion. Therefore, the spread and dominance of Theravāda in Burma was a gradual process taking centuries (and only really completed in around the 19th century). Hinduism, Ari Buddhism and nat worship remained influential forces in Burma at least until the 13th century, though the royal court generally favored Theravada. These gods were worshiped in their own temples (such as Vaisnava Nathlaung Kyaung) as well as at Buddhist temples. Burmese Theravada did not ignore these practices, and in some cases incorporated them into the Theravada pantheon. Thus, the worship of Lokanatha was accepted in Burmese Theravada as well as the worship of a list of 37 Nats that were royally sanctioned. The influence of these various religions is still felt in folk Burmese Buddhism today, which contains several elements of nat worship, esotericism, Mahayana and Hinduism. At its height, the Bagan Kingdom became an important center of Theravāda scholarship. According to Lieberman:At the great capital itself and some provincial centers, Buddhist temples supported an increasingly sophisticated Pali scholarship, part of an international tradition, which specialized in grammar and philosophical psychological (abhidhamma) studies and which reportedly won the admiration of Sinhalese experts. Besides religious texts, Pagan’s monks read works in a variety of languages on prosody, phonology, grammar, astrology, alchemy, and medicine, and developed an independent school of legal studies. Most students, and probably the leading monks and nuns, came from aristocratic families. The Burmese chronicles give a long list of monastic scholars (and their works) who worked during this era. Some important scholars of the Bagan era were Acariya Dhammasenapati, Aggavamsa Thera, Capata (Saddhammajotipala), Saddhammasiri, Vimalabuddhi, Aggapandita and Dhammadassi. Their work focused on the intricacies of Pali grammar as well as on Theravada Abhidhamma. Another key figure of Bagan Buddhism was the Mon Buddhist monk Shin Uttarajīva. He was a leading religious leader during the reigns of Narathu (1167–1171), Naratheinkha (1171–74) and Narapatisithu (1167–1191). Uttarajiva presided over the realignment of Burmese Buddhism with the Mahavihara school of Sri Lanka, moving away from the Conjeveram Thaton school of Shin Arahan. Even though the kings supported the reform and sent numerous monks to Sri Lanka to re ordain, various Burmese monks of the old order (known as the Maramma Sangha) refused to ordain in the new Burmese Sri Lankan based order (the Sinhala Sangha), and this led to a schism. The schism lasted two centuries before the old order finally died out. In the 13th century, the Bamar kings and elites built countless Buddhist stupas and temples, especially around the capital city of Bagan. These acts of generosity were a way to gain merit (puñña) and to show that one had phun (glory, spiritual power). Bagan kings presented themselves as bodhisattvas, who saw themselves as responsible for the spiritual merit of their subjects. They also saw themselves as Dharma kings (Dhammaraja) who were protectors and promoters of the Buddhist religion. Bagan kings also promoted themselves as manifestations of the god Sakka. The scale of state donations to Buddhist temples grew throughout the 13th century and many of these temples were also given arable land grants which were tax exempt as well as slaves. Over time, this flow of wealth and agricultural capacity to the Buddhist temples put increasing economic strain on the kingdom. To recover some of this wealth in an acceptable manner, kings often saw fit to "purify" or reform the Buddhist sangha (monastic community). However, in the 13th century, no Burmese kings were strong enough to manage and reform the increasingly rich and powerful sangha. The situation was also compounded by drier weather during the late 13th century and the 14th century (the Medieval Warm period), which lowered crop yields. Because of this, the state was weak and divided. It was unable to resist the invasion of new enemies like the Mongols, Hanthawaddy and the Shans. The invasions by neighboring Shan and Mon states as well as the Mongol invasions of Burma (13th century) brought the Bagan Empire to its end (the capital fell in 1287).

This era saw the rise of various fragmented warring kingdoms (Burmese, Shan and Mon) all vying for power. During this period, the western mainland remained divided between four main regional political ethnic zones. In the Shan Realm, the Shan people established a loose confederation of valley kingdoms. The Shan kingdoms supported Theravada Buddhism in imitation of the Burmese elites, though the Buddhist institutions in the Shan realm never wielded political power as they did in the Burmese regions. In the 14th century, the Buddhist sangha continued to receive patronage from regional Shan kings like Thihathu and scholarly activities continued under their reigns. Meanwhile, Arakan was ruled by the kingdom of Mrauk u, who also patronized Theravada Buddhism. The main power in the Upper Burma region was the Kingdom of Ava (founded in 1365), which was still the most populous region in the western mainland, despite all the sociopolitical disorder of the era. However, this kingdom was severely weakened economically (lacking coastal trade access), and continued to suffer from the Pagan era issue of tax free religious estates. The leaders of Buddhist institutions grew in power during this era, assuming administrative and even military offices. While most Ava kings supported the sangha, one infamous ruler, Thohanbwa is known as a king who pillaged and destroyed many monasteries and temples and massacred numerous monks. In spite of the political weakness of the kingdom, Buddhist scholarship flourished during this time, with prominent scholars like Ariyavamsa, Silavamsa and Ratthasara composing numerous works. Ariyavamsa is known for his Manisaramañjusa, a sub commentary on the Abhidhammatthavibhavani, and his Manidipa, a commentary on the Atthasalini. He also wrote some works in Burmese, and thus was one of the first pioneers to write Buddhist works in that language. In Lower Burma the Mon people were dominant. The most powerful of the Mon kingdoms was Hanthawaddy (a. k. a. Ramaññadesa), founded by Wareru. He was a patron of Theravada Buddhism, and also led the compilation of the Wareru Dhammasattha, an influential code of law patterned on Bagan customary law and influenced by Buddhism. In spite of their support for Theravada Buddhism, many of the people in Burma during this era continued to practice animist and other non Buddhist religious rites. Shan, Burmese and Mon elites often practiced animal sacrifice and worshiped nat spirits during this period. Meanwhile, the forest dwelling Ari monks continued to practice rites in which alcohol was imbibed and animals were sacrificed. The royalty also often promoted orthodoxy and Buddhist reform. The greatest of the Hanthawaddy kings, Dhammazedi (Dhammaceti), was a former Mon bhikkhu who ruled from 1471 to 1492. According to the Kalyani Inscriptions, Dhammazedi carried out an extensive reform of the Buddhist sangha by sending thousands of Buddhist monks to Sri Lanka to receive ordination and training in the Mahavihara tradition. He also purified the sangha of undisciplined monks, such as monks who owned land or other forms of material wealth. The invitation of Sinhalese monks and ordination lineages as a way to reform the sangha was also adopted in Mrauk U, Ava, Toungoo, and Prome. These Sinhalese Theravada lineages spread throughout the mainland through the different trade routes, reaching the Shan realm, Thailand and Laos. They brought with them Theravada texts, rituals, lowland alphabets and calendars. These changes paved the way for the standardizing Theravada reforms of the first Taungoo dynasty in the mid 16th century.

In the 16th century, the Burmese Taungoo dynasty unified all of Burma under energetic leaders like Tabinshwehti (r.1531–1550) and Bayinnaung (r.1551–1581). Taungoo exploited the higher population of upper Burma along with European style firearms to create the largest empire in Southeast Asia. Taungoo monarchs patronised the Mahavihara Theravada tradition (the Sinhala Sangha). During the First Toungoo Empire, a reform movement led by the Taungoo kings took place, which attempted to standardize the Buddhism of Upper Burma and the Shan region in line with the Mahavihara tradition. These reforms were modeled after those of Dhammazedi. Before the reform, the Buddhism of the Shan realm and Upper Burma was still heavily influenced by animism, Ari Buddhism and pre Buddhist ritualism (which included animal and human sacrifice). Even in Lower Burma, where Theravada was more dominant, nat worship and Ari Buddhist practices also remained influential. He also sent Burmese Theravada monks to preach in the Shan realm. During his reign, there were great scholars such as Saddhammalamkara, Dhammabuddha and Ananda (known for his commentary on the Dhammasanghani's Abhidhammamatika). Bayinnaung's reforms were continued by the monarchs of the Restored Toungoo dynasty, who spent much of their efforts in religious projects. An important later king was Thalun (1584–1648), known for building a number of monasteries and chedis in Upper Burma and other acts of donation to the sangha. He also patronized various learned elders of his era, such as Tipitakalamkara, Ariyalamkara and Jambudhaja. Tipitakalamkara is the author of the Vinayalamkara and a commentary to the Atthasalini, while Jambhudhaja composed a commentary on the Vinayatthakatha. Thalun's successor Pindale (1648–1661) also followed in his father's footsteps, building monasteries and patronizing Buddhist scholarship by figures such as Aggadhammalamkara, a great translator of various Abhidhamma works into Burmese (including the Patthana and the Dhammasangani). His Taungoo successors also promoted learning and further construction projects for the sangha. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Theravada practices became more regionally uniform, and the hill regions were drawn into closer contact with the basin. The consistent royal support of the Mahavihara Theravada tradition and the pacification of the Shan hill region led to the growth of rural monasteries (kyaungs), which became a near universal feature of Burmese village life. The rural monasteries were the main center of education and by the 18th century the large majority of village males were learning to read and write in these monasteries. As literacy became more common (over 50 percent among males), the cost of transcribing and writing Buddhist texts decreased and they thus became more commonly available. The 17th century saw a growth in the interest of Abhidhamma study and the translation of various classic works of Abhidhamma into the Burmese language, including the Atthasalini and the Abhidhammatthasangaha. This made the Abhidhamma more accessible to a much wider audience which probably included lay people. At the same time, the Ari "Forest dweller" sect with their large landed estates virtually disappeared in this period due to various economic and political pressures. However, in spite of these changes and reforms, some animist and esoteric practices like nat worship and the Weikza remained popular throughout Burma.

King Mindon Min is a key figure in the modernization of Burmese Buddhism. He became king after Lower Burma had been conquered by the British in 1852. Mindon spent most of his reign, which was generally peaceful, attempting to modernize his realm and reform the sangha. After the Second Anglo Burmese War concluded, many monks from Lower Burma had resettled in Mandalay, having fled there during the war. Mindon Min attempted to convince these bhikkhus to return to lower Burma so that they might continue to educate the people in Buddhism. Some of these monks did return. However, many of the monks in lower Burma began to group together under certain local leaders who saw themselves as outside of royal control. One of these figures was Okpo Sayadaw, who taught that the sangha did not need the protection of a secular elite power as long as it strictly kept the monastic discipline. His movement also challenged the authority of the Thudhamma sect, and took new ordinations by themselves. His ideas also reached Upper Burma and gained popularity there. Meanwhile, in Upper Burma, many monks were now moving out of the capital to Sagaing hills, seeking an environment that was stricter than the capital which they saw as promoting lavish lifestyles. At this time, the Sagaing hills area became a center for more strict monastic practice. One of monks who left for Sagaing was the Ngettwin Sayadaw. He was a popular figure, known for criticizing many traditional religious practices. Another important figure of this period was Thingazar Sayadaw, who also stressed the importance of meditation practice and strict Vinaya. Fearing that the Buddhist religion was in danger from colonialism and internal division, Mindon patronized and convened the Fifth Buddhist Council from 1868 to 1871. At this council, the Pali canon was recited and edited to create a new edition and remove scribal transmission errors. When this was done, Mindon patronized the creation of a collection of 729 stone tablets inscribed with the new edition of the Pali canon. It remains the world's largest book. The tablets were then stored in 729 small pagodas at the Kuthodaw Pagoda complex. Mindon's reign also saw the production of new scholarly works and translations of Pali texts. Ñeyyadhamma, the royal preceptor, wrote a sub commentary to the Majjhima Nikaya (which had been translated into Burmese by his disciples). Paññasami (author of the Sasanavamsa) also wrote numerous Pali works in this era, like the Silakatha, and the Upayakatha. Another important Buddhist policy of Mindon was the establishment of animal sanctuaries, particularly outside Sagaing, at Maungdaung (near Alon), near the lower Chindwin and around Meiktila lake.

After Mindon's death in 1877, his son Thibaw ascended the throne was weak and unable to prevent the British conquest of Upper Burma in 1886. This was an epoch making change, since the Buddhist sangha had now lost the support of the Burmese state for the first time in centuries. During the British administration of Lower and Upper Burma (from 1824 to 1948), government policies were generally secular which meant Buddhism and its institutions were not patronised or protected by the colonial government. Furthermore, monks who broke the vinaya now went unpunished by the government. The presence of Christian missionaries and missionary schools also became widespread. This resulted in tensions between the Buddhists, Christians and Europeans in Colonial Burma. As the authority and prestige of the sangha yielded to that of western educated colonial elites (and with the rise of western education in Burma), there was a general feeling among Burmese Buddhists during the colonial era that the Buddhist dispensation (sasana) was in decline and in danger of dying out. Not only did Buddhism now lack state support, but many of the traditional jobs of the Burmese sangha, especially education, were being taken by secular institutions. The response to this perceived decline was a mass reform movement throughout the country which responded in different ways to the colonial situation. This included waves of Buddhist publishing, preaching, and the founding of hundreds of lay Buddhist organizations, as well as the promotion of vegetarianism, Buddhist education, moral and religious reform and the founding of schools. Lay persons, including working class individuals such as schoolteachers, and clerks, merchants were quite prominent in this Buddhist revival. They now assumed the responsibility of preserving the sasana, one which had previously been taken by the king and royal elites. According to Patrick Pranke, during the same period that the vipassana movement was growing, another alternative soteriological system called weikza lam ("Path of esoteric knowledge") was also developing. During the colonial period, the future of the Burmese nation was seen as closely tied to the future of the Buddhist dispensation. For the ethnic Burmese people, Burmese nationalism was almost inseparable from their Buddhist identity. Indeed, a common slogan of the independence movement was "To be Burmese means to be Buddhist". Therefore, many monks often participated in the nationalist struggle for independence, even though the majority of the senior monks leading the Burmese Sangha spoke out against monks participating in politics. They saw such activities as being contrary to the Vinaya rules. Likewise, many of the lay Buddhist organizations and its key organizers would also take part in the nationalist movement. One of the first and most influential of these nationalist Buddhist organizations was the Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA), founded in 1906. They were the first organization to co operate with politicized monks. Politically involved monks included figures such as U Ottama, who argued that British rule was an obstacle to the practice of Buddhism and thus independence had to be gained, through violent means if necessary, though he also promoted Gandhian tactics like boycotts and tax avoidance. In support of the use of violence, he quoted some Jatakas. He was arrested numerous times and died in jail, becoming a sort of martyr for the independence movement. However, Lehr points out that monastic political agitation "did not sit well with the population at large since this open participation in anti colonial politics, or in social activism, was deemed to be a violation of the monastic rules." The reputation of the activist monks was further damaged by the participation of a small group of monks in the anti Indian Indo Burmese riots of 1938. In 1954, U Nu, convened the Sixth Buddhist Synod at the newly built Kaba Aye Pagoda and Maha Pasana Guha (Great Cave) in Rangoon (Yangon). It was attended by 2,500 monks, and established the International Institute for Advanced Buddhist studies, located on the premises of the Kaba Aye Pagoda. The main output of the council was the a new version of the Pali Canon, the "Sixth Council Tipitaka" (Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana Tipiṭaka). U Nu also led to make Buddhism as the State Religion. The Union Parliament passed and the president Mahn Win Maung enacted the followings; the 1961 Act of the Third Amendment of the Constitution (that amended the 1947 Constitution to make Buddhism as State Religion) on 26 August 1961, and the State Religion Promotion and Support Act on 2 October 1961. U Nu also made the uposatha days public holidays, required government schools to teach Buddhist students the Buddhist scriptures, banned cattle slaughter, and commuted some death sentences. While U Nu was overthrown as prime minister by Ne Win (who undid some of U Nu's religious policies) in 1962, he continued to travel and to teach Buddhism and remained an important Burmese spiritual leader and literary figure. During the parliamentary era, Buddhism also became an ideological barrier against communism. Both U Nu and Burmese monk and philosopher U Kelatha argued that Buddhism had to counter the Marxist Materialist philosophy which was against the teachings of the Buddha and a threat to Buddhism. During the 20th century, the Burmese vipassana meditation movement also continued to grow and expand. Numerous monks and lay students developed various methods of meditation and there are many meditation centers and meditation monasteries. Influential figures of 20th century Burmese Buddhist meditation include U Nārada, Mahasi Sayadaw and Sayadaw U Pandita (who promoted what is called the "new Burmese method"), Webu Sayadaw, U Ba Khin and his student S. N. Goenka, Mogok Sayadaw, Sunlun Sayadaw, and Pa Auk Sayadaw (who emphasizes the jhanas as taught in the Visuddhimagga). Numerous western students also studied Burmese Buddhist meditation and brought them to the west as part of what is sometimes called the insight meditation (or vipassana) movement. This includes figures like Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein and Sharon Salzberg.